,4ug., 1917
T H E JOUR,VAL O F I i V l ? C S T R I A L A N D E S G I S E E R I - T G C H E M I S T R Y
THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF THE CHEMIST’ By
R.4YMowD
F. BACON
“Ahead of 11s are problems still more crucial a n d complex; their solutions may perhaps be neither individualistic nor collectivistic, b u t they must be applications of a policy scientifically conceired.”
The success of many of our most important industries can only be attributed to the centralized, coordinated work of operation with chemical research, and it is generally conceded that the accomplishments of industrial research have eventuated in the recognition by our manufacturers of the essentiality of the chemist. The results of an investigation carried out by me last fall revealed the fact that certain of our research laboratory forces have been increased from , 2 5 0 to 400 per cent in the last ten years, and that, since August 1914, the staffs of a number of the largest laboratories have been enlarged from 2j t o IOO per cent. One great American corporation now employs about 500 men who have been trained as chemists. In the principal research laboratory of this organization 62 researchers are now a t work, whereas in 1914 only 30 were employed and in 1906 but 1 7 . At least five other organizations have 60 or more research chemists. However, the growth of the appreciation of research by American industrialists is inadequately indicated by the number of research chemists employed a t various periods. There are numerous instances where the research work has only kept pace with the extent of the operations involved, although these companies have grown partly because they have constantly endeavored to progress with the advancement in knowledge. Their present conception of original investigation as a necessary accompaniment of manufacturing in no way differs from that which they held a decade ago. It is, accordingly, impossible t o measure their appreciation of research by the extent of the facilities set apart for the purpose rather than by the degree with which the organizations are imbued with the investigative idea. In addition t o research chemists, three other general classes of chemically trained men are engaged in the service of industry. I refer to analytical chemists engineer-chemists (properly, applied physical chemists) and chemical engineers. The two last mentioned are frequently confused, and the industrialist does not usually draw a decided distinction between the analyst and plant, or engineer, chemist as to preliminary training. Strictly speaking, from the manufacturer’s viewpoint, the chemists in his employ are either research or analytical. AN ISDUSTRIAL APPRAISAL O F THE CHEMICAL T R S I S I N G O F TO-DAY “Our industries need ideas-good
ideas-and
good men t o execute them.”
There exists a diversity of opinion among the directors of corporation laboratories of this country regarding both 1.he industrial usefulness of present-day chemical instruction and the defects of academic training in chemistry. In order t o demonstrate the actuality of this, I shall summarize the results of an inquiry, preliminary in nature, which was initiated during the past winter, as to whether American industrialists are satisfied with the training of the young chemists who have been taken into their employ during the past three years. I n presenting these conclusions, i t is necessary, both because of the large scope of the subject and because the quotation of individual instances would be offensive, to proceed in a spirit of broad generalization; and the validity of these generic applications will be dependent upon their contextural reasonableness. The results of this preliminary investigation are illuminating 1 .4n address delivered before t h e S e w T o r k Section of t h e American Chemical Society on M a y 11, 1917.
797
of the improvement over the conditions which obtained in factory laboratories six years ago. From the replies received in response to my questionnaire, approximately 30 per cent of the chief chemists and research directors expressed no real dissatisfaction with the chemical training of to-day. These officials conceded that a perfect training could hardly exist, and indicated that very much depended upon the traits of character of the young graduate, independent of the training. They thought that our large, well-equipped institutions of learning gave their chemical students fundamental knowledge which constituted a sort of inventory with which the men began work; but they pointed out that it was largely a question of active optimism and continuity of effort of the man in the position, coupled, perhaps, with the selection of subject of work, and that accordingly some gifted young men, with very little academic training, often accomplished fully as much.
It may be interesting to know that the college graduates in our steel works laboratories, both analytical and research, are regarded in general as well qualified. I n fact, one chief chemist who had employed 2j young chemists since the beginning of the European war, stated that these men had “a more intimate knowledge of general conditions” in such plants “than those of five years ago.” In another domain of industry, the laboratory director, an employer of 45 chemists, regarded the training of the men received into his department as “sufficient for the purpose.” To quote further from his communication, the “training a t the present time appears to be very good, but of course, many men are taking the courses who are not fitted by nature and temperament t o make a success of applied chemistry.” Several chief chemists agreed that “if a man does not do satisfactory work in industrial chemistry, it is more his fault than the shortcoming of the training he has received.” A prominent manufacturing chemist who requires twice the number of chemists employed five years ago, reported that he had noticed no difference in the training of young chemists during the past three years, but that “like all human beings, some are more efficient than others and some have taken better advantage of their opportunities than others.” This industrialist retains only the diligent, earnest and loyal laboratory employees. The technical director of a large oil refinery endorsed the satisfactory nature of present-day chemical training, but alluded to the failure of chemists t o win for themselves leading positions in their respective industries; he accounted for this, in a measure, by the experienced deficiency in “sticking qualities :” “young men expect rapid promotion, and, if such is not forthcoming a t once, they leave our employ in the hope of finding a more rapid advancement elsewhere.” Still another technologist, the supervisor of I Z researchers, gave the opinion that “the quality of the men has improved greatly in the last five years and their knowledge of theoretical chemistry is greater, but they are very much lacking in even semi-practical work, having no knowledge of even the smallest form of industrial apparatus.” His new chemical employees therefore serve an apprenticeship-a procedure which has become so general in manufacturing chemistry that i t will be considered a t more length later. Finally, mention may be made here of the complaint of those directors who, while entirely satisfied with the adequacy of our chemical curricula, receive fewer applications for positions from welltrained chemists than they did three years ago. One employer of 38 chemists stated that the desirable types of investigator seemed to be seized before graduation by the “war babies,” “who offer higher salaries than the chemical industries not working for export would pay normally.” It has become increasingly difficult for such manufacturers to locate the men required for filling vacancies created by advancement of the members of their staffs. On the other hand, the inquiry revealed the fact that about
,
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T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D l r S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
7 0 per cent of the heads of important industrial laboratories are dissatisfied over the type of instruction that in many cases is offered young men who, after graduation, enter plant laboratories in positional capacities. There is dissatisfaction with the methods that are taught and with the neglect of the time factor in conducting analyses-dissatisfaction also with the omission of chemical literature from the course of study, with the failure t o give instruction of a practical nature in chemical apparatus, and with the neglect to teach some sense of proportion in distinguishing between accuracy and practical accuracy. Then, too, those directors who have given the subject careful deliberation point t o the lack of resourcefulness and optimism in the average graduate of to-day, and advise that, wherever possible, young men be selected for training in chemistry. One great corporation, which now employs 70 chemists, replied that the young graduates taken into its laboratories during the last several years did not fully meet requirements. The opinion of the head of the research department of this company is the outcome of thoughtful consideration during the last decade, and is supported in general by the findings of the SubCommitted on Research in Industrial Laboratories of the Committee of One Hundred on Scientific Research of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ;l it is therefore presented in full. “They are nearly all deficient in the fundamentals, especially quantitative analysis; they have not received in the university the thorough drilling in analysis which its importance warrants, and, as a result, it is necessary t o put the young men through an extended drill in the general analytical laboratory lasting for six months t o a year before reliable work can be obtained from them. Obviously it would facilitate matters if this drill were given in the university. We believe more time should be devoted in the university to the making of complete analyses of natural substances; as, for instance, a heavy metal sulfide, such as pyrites, and a silicate, such as feldspar, everything present being determined quantitatively. “Another criticism which can be made of the average young chemist is that he is lacking in a knowledge of chemical literature. I n many cases he knows few chemical books and journals and may not even know the standard books on analysis. His ideas on where to find methods for his work are often vague, and consequently, when he gets into difficulties, as all chemists will, he is unable to work himself out. It may be remarked that lack of knowledge of chemical literature occurs probably most often with men from the smaller colleges. “It is suggested that it would be profitable to pay more attention to teaching the student t o work out his own methods of analysis; for instance, if he were given a sample of clay for complete analysis and required t o locate the method for himself, he would be better prepared to meet a similar situation when it occurred outside of the university walls, as it certainly will a year or two later. We appreciate that this method of instruction is used to some extent, but we believe that the average student does not get enough of it.”
This contention is corroborated by the experience of many other managers of research departments. One of the real personalities in industry remarked that, “The young men of to-day do not have a thorough training in analytical chemistry, the desired laboratory accuracy, nor do they seem to think closely along strictly chemical lines.” Another director replied that, “It has been our observation that those universities that aim to give broad training in the fundamentals of Chemistry, and that neglect no department of analytical work, turn out men who more quickly become valuable t o us in research work than do institutions that endeavor to specialize in producing so-called chemical engineers.” However, in such highly specialized industries as the manufacture of aniline colors, somewhat different, and preferably more elaborate, training is expected. It is the united opinion that in such a n industry every chemist who is to do more than 1
See Bacon, Science,
K.S., 46
(1917). 34.
Vol. 9, No. 8
routine work should have had a thorough training in research work; in other words, the man with the bachelor’s degree is unsatisfactory unless he be given the research training under factory guidance, and obviously the man with the experience of a Ph.D. is the type most wanted. From the viewpoint of the coal products industrialist our universities are most weak in the direction of the various allied branches of science and engineering. For example, men are needed who are well grounded in electrochemistry, physical chemistry, physics and the engineering subjects, and who a t the same time are conversant with the fundamentals of organic chemistry, so they can apply their specific knowledge to the development of this industry. As explained by an expert in dyes, much of the time spent in industrial Chemistry as well as in certain lines of analytical chemistry does not bear the fruit it would if devoted to the study of the fundamental lines of the above allied subjects. “The most practical thing which the university can do for its students is to ground them thoroughly in the theory of chemistry and at the same time give them some insight into the fundamentals of the above-mentioned subjects.” Of course, it is essential that every chemist learn the manipulation peculiar to chemistry, but it is questionable if this cannot be done in less time than most institutions take for it. It seems to be the opinion of the men engaged in manufacturing organic chemistry that the industry itself can train the man best in industrial chemistry providing he has some groundwork upon which reliance can be placed and that this groundwork should be taught in the university. One thing is certain: the industrialists in that field are demanding that the chemist be able t o conduct investigations, and every student should be made to realize that he must have graduate work t o give him training which is absolutely essential to his success. Another group of research directors holds firmly t o the view that character and natural ability are of infinitely more consequence than training, and that in regard t o the latter by far the most important part is that received after entering industrial work. That is, each important branch of industry demands its own special type of chemist and consequently no course of university training can cover all the requisite ground. Most of the profitable work in industry is the outcome of intimate contact with factory practice and manufacturing difficulties, and one of the most valuable assets that a young chemist can possess is the ability to get close to factory workmen and secure their cooperation. This group accordingly regards the young chemist as undertrained, not so much in chemistry, but in the every-day affairs in industrial practice, and considers the young graduate most useful who possesses a sense of how to do things in a direct way (“factory sense”), which is, of course, resourcefulness. The difficulty experienced is in knowing how to select the right man for the place. One of our leading manufacturers, himself a chemist, informed me that he had never found a chemist who had sufficient training to take up his particular line of work, and that factory training was invariably necessary before the young graduate became sufficiently efficient t o earn his salary. This technologist did not approve of the methods in use in teaching chemistry in this country: “Our system, with perhaps one or two exceptions, is like teaching the grammar of a foreign language exclusively without teaching the language. The student knows all about the language excepting how to talk.” This is, no doubt, an extreme view, for my inquiry shows that it is far from being representative, but it is the outcome of a varied experience and therefore merits mention. The general opinion among manufacturers who are alone in a field of industrial chemistry or who are engaged in a highly specialized branch thereof, is that it would be expecting too much of the universities to ask them to supply trained men. As one chemical director has expressed this condition, “If the man has a good university training, and has
Aug., 1917
T H E J O C R N A L O F I J V D C S T R I A L A N D EJGI.VEERILVG C H E M I S T R Y
learned to think for himself and use inherited common sense, we usually can make a pretty good industrial chemist out of him in a year or two.” This director has, in fact, even gone t o the extreme of placing men with no chemical training in charge of chemical operations because of their ability to exercise independent thought and to act wisely in an emergency; of course, he has always supplemented such men by others with chemical training, in order to reply to chemical queries as they arise and not obligate those in charge to ascertain the answers themselves at a great waste of time. Supplemental laboratory training for young graduates is a general practice in the explosives industry. One company has found that university-trained chemists are satisfactory after six or eight months training in its own laboratories, while in the chemical department of another corporation the newer men usually work under chemists who have had several years’ experience in both research and in the adaptation of laboratory processes to works operations. “If a man has a good grounding in chemistry and is the right kind of man, we put him under older men in the laboratory to help in their investigations, and he in time becomes able to carry on research himself, that is, if he has the right kind of brains for that kind of work.” The following system of training is in operation by a company which manufactures over 40 products and employs about 60 chemists: The carefully selected young graduates are first placed in the routine laboratory, the head of which eventually transfers the most capable chemists to the research laboratory. There are always a number of investigations in progress in the research laboratory, and one of the relatively new men is placed in charge of a process undergoing development. If he “makes. good” under the general supervision of the research director, he later becomes superintendent of a plant erected for the purpose of applying the process. The method of getting into a new line of manufacture is as follows: a process is tested out with ordinary laboratory apparatus, and then, if the yields and prospects are such that it is decided to go into that line of manufacture, a small plant is built. A small amount of material is made in this way, and then the apparatus is improved upon according to the judgment of the man in charge, until finally i t is got into working shape. It may then have a capacity of only a few ounces or a few pounds per day. This equipment is then used by the engineering department as a basis of design for a commercial plant. The first commercial unit itself is usually made on a small scale, and in as cheap a building as possible, and is expanded and elaborated as experience indicates. In other words, the processes and equipment are the products of slow but steady evolution, and the desired type of works chemist also results from this systematic development. \Vhen taken into the company’s employ, the chemists are not competent to do anything but assist, but they are advanced to positions of leadership as rapidly as they are fully able to hold the jobsa t least, that is the aim. Finally, reference should be made in this section to the recommendation of a chemical works manager of wide experience. In his opinion, some provision should be made in our educational system for the training of boys during the high school period in such technical subjects that they will be fitted for positions as “Chemists’ Apprentices,” if such a term may be used. By chemists’ apprentices is meant boys who have had the equivalent of a high school course devoted almost exclusively to : Arithmetic, through Elementary Algebra Elementary Physics Elementary Chemistry Elementary Mechanics A little Mechanical Drawing Considerable Manual Training, especially Wood Working and Machine Tool Work of t h e simpler sort.
7 99
“We like to provide most of our chemists with one or more of such apprentices. By so doing we enormously increase the output of the trained chemist and a t the same time we train up a valuable corps of assistants, who, for some purposes, are more satisfactory than the college graduate. We fully appreciate that the educational problem involved is purely a local problem; for, according to this plan, each community must shape its technical high schooIs, or trade schools, according to the needs of the industries of that particular section.” THE SELECTION AND TRAINING O F STUDENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL
RESEARCH‘
“Our schools are called upon now, not t o record a n d systematize. but t o instil t h e active germ of a conscious, creative evolution.”
Research leading to the discovery of new ideas requires not only intellect and training, but also initiative or genius; i t can come only from an individual who possesses unusual intuition and insight. It follows, therefore, that there is a scarcity of men gifted with the genius for industrial research, and that it requires much experience in selecting suitable men and in training them t o the desirable degree of efficiency, after having determined the particular qualities required. I t is considered advisable, in view of the experience of American manufacturers,? that in the beginning of his senior year the chemical student should branch more or less to a special study of the line of industrial work with which he anticipates he will later be associated. Those students possessing mechanical aptitude and those gifted for research work should be carefully selected with a view of suggesting specialization. Generally speaking, students qualified upon the completion of their undergraduate work to become engineers and research chemists, should be advised to devote two or three years to post-graduate study with the object in view of qualifying them for service in specific branches in the domain of chemical industry. These chosen students should be advised against accepting positions of an isolated nature. Important qualifications in industrial research are the following: Adequate training. Scientific acumen. 3 Active optimism.‘ Intellectual honesty, Cnselfishness.3 Tact. Creative power.6 Exactitude.’ Intrepidity.8
}
SCHOL.~R~HIP
/
POISE
i
Some directors of research place active optimism above scholarship, for they maintain that, without it, little that is novel will be accomplished except by accident. One is more likely to grant that knowledge may sometimes be a detriment to a researcher imbued merely with a need of solving new problems. However, the determinable nature of scholarship induces its Based in p a r t upon Bacon’s report in Science, N. S., 46 (1917), 34. This statement is made on t h e hasis of t h e inquiry reported upon in t h e preceding section a s well a s from t h e results of personal observation. 3 Especially talent for observation and t h e gift of deducing sound conclusions from work. Such keenness is characteristic of “born chemists” a n d scientists in general. 4 This includes hopeful pertinacity, enthusiasm, confidence and selfreliance. 6 Active optimism and codperation among qualified researchers constitute t h e basis of success in systematic research. Researchers who are actively optimistic are invariably men of sympathy and hence loyalty. 6 This consists largely of inspiration, ingenuity and insight. A qualified researcher who possesses initiative is usually a creator. 1 Sound judgment, thoroughness, a n d care; accuracy in experimentation a n d knowledge. 8 T h i s is of especial value during t h e industrial development of t h e results of research. 1
2
800
T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
primary consideration in this place. It is scarcely necessary t o mention that in no other human endeavor do the personal traits protrude so much as in concerted research; but the successful administration of research always presupposes the utmost faith in human nature, and it frequently requires some time for a display of optimism, poise, or fair play to become evident among qualified research chemists, especially when they are engaged on separate problems. The important requisites for industrial research are frequently given no consideration by manufacturers, who, in endeavoring t o select a research chemist-particularly their first researcherare likely t o regard every chemist as qualified for investigatory work. The supply of men capable of working a t high efficiency as researchers is well below the demand, and chemists having the requisites and spirit of the investigator are indeed difficult t o find even by those experienced in the direction of research. All research professors know that the location of a skilled private assistant-one who possesses not only originality, but also sound judgment and intellectual honesty-is not easy, because it frequently involves the gift of prophecy on the part of the searcher.’ It has been truly said that the “seeds of great discoveries are constantly floating around us, but they take root only in minds well prepared t o receive them.” On account of the extraordinary technologic importance of new ideas, particular emphasis should always be laid upon finding and supporting brilliant researchers. Such individuals can best be found in the universities. The function of the university is t o work with the beneficent idea of increasing the sum of human knowledge, and among its most valuable products are those who will work for the exercise of the investigative instinct and the pleasure of overcoming difficulties. The examination of the training necessary for those proposing t o take up industrial research which is common with all scientifically trained men, is too extensive a subject t o be discussed here. It is, however, appropriate to consider those subjects t o which it seems desirable for the prospective researcher t o devote specific attention; reference is, of course, had to subjects other than those required by the average student of the sciences as distinguished from their industrial application, but the assumption is not made that what is desirable for research work should not also be available for all. Research men in the service of our industries frequently possess adequate training and scientific acumen, but fail in their ability t o use it. There is no question that the chemical graduate of to-day is most noticeably deficient in resourcefulness. A qualified research chemist who possesses initiative is usually a creator, but, owing t o the neglect of existing difficulties in chemical pedagogy, the present-day graduates of our schools of chemistry are too often deficient in inspiration, ingenuity and insight. The failure to provide adequate and systematic instruction in chemical literature is illustrative of this contention. Before commencing laboratory work upon any problem, i t is obviously necessary to digest intelligently the important contributions which have been made upon the subject and to take advantage of what other workers have done in the same field. The average graduate is usually almost helpless when attempting t o do this and consequently requires close supervision. The main difficulties are : ( a ) He does not know how to go about i t ; he does not know where t o look as the most probable source; and he is not familiar with the standard treatises and important journals. ( b ) He fails to analyze the subject into its factors and hence generally looks for topics which are too general. Because he does not find any reference to the problem as a whole, as he has it in mind, he assumes that nothing has been done upon it and t h a t there is nothing in the literature which will be of aid to him in the investigation. Were he t o separate his subject into its 1 See discussion in Science, li. S., 4 1 (1915). 319.
Yol. 9 . No. 8
essential parts and then to consult the literature on each factor, he would find considerable information which he otherwise would miss. ( 6 ) He does not critically digest the articles under examination, but often he makes only a few disconnected quotations and fails to interpret the work done. The solution is to be found in the provision in the chemical curriculum, preferably in the junior year, of a course of lectures (one hour per week) on the literature of chemistry, with particular reference to the character of the writings and the status of the authors. The purpose of this course should be t o present a general survey of the voluminous literature and t o impart an accurate, systematic working knowledge of chemical bibliography. A concurrent seminar (at least two hours per week) should be devoted to indexing and tracing chemical literature, t o the cultivation of an acquaintanceship with authorities, and t o the solution of bibliographic problems. This training should continue through the senior year in order that it could be put into practice in thesis work. Pedagogic attention should also be given to the arrangement of a course of study in the principles of technical reporting and in the criteria of literary excellence in the preparation of reports of researches and professional reports. The completion of such a subject, with its accompanying analysis, practice and criticism, would usefully supplement the training received in chemical bibliography and would develop a capability which is much needed by chemical graduates. It may be noted in passing that, during the academic year 1914-15, distinct courses in chemical literature and in technical reporting were established at the University of Pittsburgh. Much success has attended this pedagogic innovation. Training in chemical literature for juniors has been provided a t the University of Illinois since 1913, and there has been observed a marked difference in the ability of the seniors to handle literature with discrimination. The chemical graduate of to-day is also deplorably deficient in resourcefulness in planning research. While this is an extensive subject, a research student may be trained in correct methods of attack, namely: ANALYTICAL M E T H O D S - - ~ ~ ~ O S ~all investigations require analytical control. In no feature of chemical work is there more apparent an inability to use the analytical training which the young chemist has received. P L A S N I N G THE INVESTIGATIOX-ReSOUrCefU1neSS in Separating a problem into its essential factors and in clearly grasping the interrelationship of these factors is most important. Too many men desire to start in a t once, hoping thus to solve the problem a t the first attempt. This tendency could be overcome by instruction in “methods of research.” APPARATUS-Unfamiliarity with apparatus, both laboratory and plant, is a marked weakness in the average graduate. While cleverness in this respect is doubtless innate, and not made, it should be possible to give the undergraduate some training in the use of his mental equipment in designing and planning apparatus which is to accomplish definite desired results. THE STATUS OF THE CHEMICAL CONSULTANT “Our chemical house must be in order.”
.
At the present time the practice of chemistry savors of a profession, but it has not become a well-defined and established profession. Indeed, some consider it doubtful whether i t can attain a higher standard until the cloak of legislative protection has been thrown around it. It is true that our chemical organizations can endeavor to protect the public against impostors and unqualified consultants, but their power is limited and eventually, according to this viewpoint, i t will become necessary for the public t o resort t o the legislature for protection. It
Aug.,
1917
T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D EXGIiVEERI.VG
is contended that chemical liberality has opened the doors t o merely interested and even ignorant persons-a condition which can be remedied only by legislation. The actual profession of the consulting chemist should require very careful preparation by one who seeks to enter it; but while many may have occasion t o consult him, comparatively few can determine the qualifications of learning and skill which he possesses. This is the basis of the argument that reliance should therefore be placed upon the assurance given by a license, issued by an authority competent t o judge in that respect, that he has the requisite training. The wisdom underlying the statutes requiring a definite preliminary education, supplemented by special study a t accredited schools, as qualifications precedent to the application for license t o practice medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy, cannot be questioned. The legislation of the several states of the United States i n this respect has been approved by the courts in holding those statutes constitutional which prohibit the practice of those professions by unlicensed persons. The profession of the chemist, of inestimable importance t o society, has not, however, found a place in our legislatures. While the chemist does not have to deal with the influences upon which health and life depend, he has been active in the protection of public health, of vital moment in modem government, and it is therefore surprising, perhaps, that society has not taken advantage of the right to prescribe rules of conduct for the chemist which would attempt t o conduce t o the general welfare. But the condition may be explained by the fact that, logically, as it now exists, the chemical profession is constituted of varied specialists and assistants responsible thereto, and it is a well-established principle of law that“In all those employments where peculiar skill is requisite, t h e one who offers his services is understood as holding himself out t o the public as possessing the degree of skill commonly possessed by others in the same employment.” Then, too, as in the case of the engineer, the great majority of chemists are definite employees whose qualifications have been passed upon by the organizations they serve and which are responsible therefor, and admittedly the skill and knowledge possessed by these representatives are not for the determination of society in general. Important elements of this nature serve to differentiate the status of the non-consulting chemist from that of the general medical practitioner. The question when a chemist becomes a specialist or expert will never be one of law, but one of fact for his own determination and for the recognition of his employers or colleagues; but when he holds himself out as a consulting specialist in some subject of chemistry, he assumes the obligation to use that degree of skill which such a n expert should necessarily possess in the opinion of the profession. Statutory licensure would therefore appear t o be unnecessary. The reasoning in this contention is predicated upon the law relating t o the liability of the medical specialist. The fact that there have been so few damage suits involving consulting chemists is a monument to the general high integrity of the chemical profession. Indeed, the rarity of chemical quackery is convincing testimony that there is no moral need for legislative protection of the public. Society must, however, look to professional organizations of the type of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers to raise constantly the ethical and scientific standards of chemical consultants, discouraging and prohibiting unprofessional conduct. hTo one should be regarded as a chemical engineering consultant until he can qualify for membership in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers,’
’
I t is not contended t h a t every chemical engineer should be expected t o seek membership in t h e American Institute of Chemical Engineers, b u t i t is reasonably maintained t h a t every one who holds himself out a s a consulting chemical engineer should be able t o comply with t h e standard established by t h a t organization a n d t h a t this qualification should be employed legally in connection with expert a n d opinion evidence.
CHEMISTRY
801
and it is highly desirable that a n institute of analysts also be established, in order to advance the cause of analytical chemistry and t o give the analyst such standing before the community as will justify the complete recognition of his profession by municipal, state and federal authorities in public works. Those engaged in the practice of chemistry have become conscious of their work as a social service and their devotion t o this work is intensified by the recognition that they are united in a sort of invisible brotherhood. It is therefore a natural result that their personal pride in individual achievements has become so elevated by consciousness of class that it has been converted into an abiding professional pride. The industrial chemist has been obliged to contend with infinite diversity of institution and with empiricism, but the introduction of scientific methods is providing a new center of interest for him as well as for the organization which he serves. h1ELLOX INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL
RESEARCH
L-hIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH, PITTSBURGH, P E N h . S Y L V A h . I A
T H E INSPECTION AND TESTING OF TRINITROTOLUENE B y K. K. STEVENS Received M a y 22, 1917
Trinitrotoluene, although long known to chemists, is comparatively new in the field as a military explosive, and for brevity is designated by various trade names, such as “Trotyl,” “Tritol,” “Trinol,” “Tolite,” “Trilit,” and commonly known as ThT. Picric acid or trinitrophenol was, and is still, used to a large extent as the principal explosive of this class, under the names of “Lyddite” and “Shimose.” Picric acid and TNT belong to the “brisant” or shattering class, and are used largely in the manufacture of shells, torpedoes, mines, and, either alone or as components, in detonators or “exploders.” The chief disadvantage in the use of picric acid is its tendency to form very sensitive picrates with the metals of shells, etc., and necessitates strict specifications for these materials. TNT has several advantages over picric acid, viz. : ( I ) Inertness towards heavy metals, in direct contrast to the picric acid, although caustic potash or soda will form compounds with TST which will cause it to esplode a t even 160” C. (z)-Lower fusion temperature, which allows pouring to be done a t S I ’ C. or lower, while picric acid requires a temperature of I I j to 1 2 0 ’ C. (3)-Stability in storage; it can be stored indefinitely without change in composition. (4)-Insensitiveness to shock of impact or firing, so that i t can be safely handled and transported. A rifle bullet fired through a case of T S T has no esplosire effect, and covering with either sand or water has no effect on shattering force. The velocity of detonation is less than picric acid: 7 1 0 0 meters per second against 7600. The expansive force test shown in the “Trausel lead block” method gives for T S T Z I S cc. against 2 2 8 for picric: these figures may vary with different grades of material, and are merely cited for comparison. The lower expansive or shattering force is in some instances advantageous; for example, a shell blown in very small pieces will not have the disastrous effect produced if the fragments are larger. Used in detonators, TKT replaces the more expensive mercury fulminate; e . g., in a KO. 7 cap containing I . j g. of fulminate, 0.7 g. of TNT will replace 0 . 5 g. of fulminate.
