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NORMAL AND TEACRBRS' COLLEGE ESSAYS
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THE RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO HEALTH AND DISEASE* There has been a great change in the purpose of chemical research since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The alchemists of earlier centuries had directed their efforts toward the transformation of the baser metals into gold and to the discovery of some drug capable of restoring broken health and prolonging hfe. These were not unworthy objects, but the energy was misspent because they did not understand the fundamental structure of matter and the cause and nature of disease. The search for the "Philosopher's Stone" has lona - since been abandoned, but the search to relieve human suffering has gone on unceasingly. Progress was slow at first, but the fires of this worthy cause were kept burning, waiting, as it were, for a master chemist to fan them into a flame which would lay bare the hidden mysteries of disease and its treatment. Such a chemist came, and the world will never be able to discharge its debt of gratitude to Pasteur, the French chemist, who, through a series of brilliant discoveries, found that many of our most dreaded diseases are caused by bacteria. No sooner had this genius discovered bacteria than he was preparing and purifying antitoxins and serums to treat or prevent the specific diseases, each of which he found to be caused by a JOHN R. HASLBM definite microorganism. A few years prior to the time of this pioneer, Jenner had proved that a slight attack of some disease rendered the patient immune to that particular disease. Pasteur not only elaborated on this idea but also was so bold as to disprove the ancient theory of spontaneous generation. It is the purpose of this paper to follow the evolution of medical chemistry, so ably started by Pasteur and his coworkers. Lister introduced the use of antiseptics, but most of these failed through lack of the proper concentration and purification; and instead of aiding in the cure of the disease, they only aggravated it by destroying the cells. Most of the modern successful antiseptics, used in combating diseases,
* Prize-winning normal-school and teachers'
college essay, 1928-29.
have been discovered and brought to perfection in the chemical laboratories. In this list are iodine, bichloride of mercury, hydrogen peroxide, acridine yellow, lysol, hexyl resorcinol, and mercurochrome, the last of which was recently, a t Johns Hopkins, injected into the blood to combat the dreaded streptococcus kaemolyticw. During the World War, Carrel, an American surgeon, and Dakin, an English chemist, found that a solution of sodium hypochlorite kept wounds sterile. This antiseptic is now known as the Dakin-Carrel solution. The cell is the main principle of life, and it can be fathomed to its depths only through the united efforts of the chemist and the histologist. Progress has already been made along this line through the introduction of the coal-tar dyes, which are used extensively in the preparation of antiseptics, drugs, and stains for the study of cell structures. At some future time, a cure for cancer may be found in the grimy coal-tar products extracted and synthesized by chemists. Methylene blue, carbol fuchsin, baemotoxylin, eosin, and gentian violet are especially useful in the staining processes. Cell life is very largely chemical in character since cell secretion, cell respiration, and cell nutrition are only diierent aspects of the same kind of molecular activity. As an aid to the surgeon in diagnosis, the chemist has produced the valuable dye, phenolsulfonephthalein, which is used to test the functioning of the kidneys before major operations. Along with this kidney test is the Wassermann and Kahn test for sj.philis; the sugar-tolerance test for the early stages of diabetes; the level of Mood urea and creatiniue tests for kidney disturbances, as well as the routine urinary analysis and blood diagnosis. Of no less importance is the Lichtheim coagulation test for the early stages of tuberculosis meningitis; the tests for hormone deficiencies; the amyl nitrite test for the presence of angina pectoris; the Widal test for typhoid; the Shick test for diphtheria; and the Dick test for scarlet fever. Another phase of medicine which has been greatly improved by chemistry is that of anesthesia. Although nitrous oxide (laughing gas) was discovered in 1776 by Priestley, chloroform by Guthrie in 1831, and others centuries before, it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that their value as anesthetics was made known. In 1885 Gadeke isolated cocaine, but i t was not until 1884 that effective local anesthesia was accomplished by its use. Since then, chemists have studied the much involved structure of cocaine and have found that only a part of the molecule is effective in anesthesia. From this portion has been prepared eucaine and procaine which are used extensively by modem surgeons in spinal anesthesia. Butyn, related structurally to procaine and stovaine, has been derived from benzoic acid and is used in spinal anesthesia, as are also apothesine and psicaine. Stovaine became obsolete with the discovery of procaine by
VOL.6, No. 10
NORMAL, AND TRACEERS' COLLEGE ESSAYS
1683
Einhom in Germany. Procaine, psicaine, apothesine, and butyn are all non-habit forming anesthetics and are better for infiltration anesthesia than for topical application. Ether, prepared by the dehydration of ethyl alcohol, is one of our most important anesthetic agents. Ethyl chloride is also being used either as a general or local anesthetic. As a "local," it is simply sprayed on the surface of the skin and its volatility causes a freezing of the tissues. The so-called sleeping powders are closely related to the anesthetics. Among the valuable soporifics are sulfonal, tetronal, trional, veronal-sodium, and luminal. The latter is used in nervous troubles such as epilepsy and St. Vitus dance. Luminal has almost replaced morphine although it also leads to habit formation. The insoluble local anesthetics, anesthesin, and butesin, are employed externally as dusting powders and ointments for the relief of pain due to denuded skin areas and internally for the relief of pain due to gastric ulcers. One of the most valuable of the specific remedies is insulin which was discovered by F. G. Banting and C. H. Best, eminent chemists of Toronto. They extracted this hormone from the enzyme-free pancreas and it is now universally administered to those afflicted with diabetes. This dreadful disease is caused by the disorganization of the metabolic processes in the islets of Langerhans. As a result of their failure to function properly, sugar is lost through the kidneys. The stage of the disease may be ascertained by determining the sugar in the urine. Although insulin is not a cure for diabetes, it does to a certain degree restore health, which may be maintained through proper dieting. Thousands who formeily died with this disease now live out their natural lives. The work of Fischer and Sherman stands out prominently in the field of dietetics because of their extensive research on the vitamins and the relation of vitamins to certain diseases. The work of these pioneers was soon followed by that of others. Dr. Funk of Poland found that scurvy could be cured by eating foods containing vitamin C which is found in fruits and vegetables. Takaki, a Japanese, made the discovery that beriberi is caused by the lack of vitamin B which is found in the husks of unpolished rice. Rickets was found to be due to the absence of vitamin A which is present in cod-liver oil. The disease pellagra has been fought with a diet of proteins and the so-called factor P-P, which has yet to be isolated and synthesized.. The relation of factor P-P to the other nutritional factors and its distribution in foods is still undetermined. In this field, a fresh advance is almost certain. Creative chemistry has certainly proved its worth in the contributions it has made to the persistent struggle to conquer the social diseases, syphilis and gonorrhea. For syphilis, mercury and potassium iodide were among the first remedies to be employed. With the use of the former, mercuric poisoning has been so frequent that chemists have constantly been seeking
a less toxic drug. Among those who worked to this end were Dr. Ehrlich and his associates. It has been fonnd that organic forms of arsenic have low toxicity. One of these was prepared by the action of aniline on arsenic acid. Dr. Ehrlich began his work with the sodium salt of this acid and prepared a large number of its derivatives, in fact 606, before he fonnd one with the desired properties. This particular derivation he named salvarsan because he thought i t would be the salvation of mankind by destroying one of its greatest scourges. In chemistry, it is known as arsphenamine. This drug marks a great advance toward the complete suppression of this devastating disease. The gonococcus of Neisser, named after Albert Neisser, who isolated it in 1879, causes the horrible dlsease known as gonorrhea. For this infection, acriflavine is being used. It is a drug built up by chemists from the acridine yellow molecule. This is injected locally and administered internally as well. The amoebic organism, which causes chronic entemoeba histolytica, has been successfully treated with emetine, one of the three alkaloids obtained from Ipecac root. This single-celled organism shrinks up and dies when emetine comes in contact with it. The bacillus Leprae, which causes the dreadful and ancient disease known as leprosy, is overcome to a certain extent by a preparation made by digesting chaulmoogra oil in alcohol and a small quantity of sulfuric acid. Epinephrine, commonly known as adrenalin, is extracted from the adrenal medulla. Its structure is definitely known and can be prepared synthetically. It has become an indispepsable drug in medical practice. When administered with a local anesthetic, it prolongs the anesthesia by constricting the blood vessels, and thus decreases the chance for hemorrhage. When injected into the blood, i t instantly relieves the difficult breathing of bronchial asthma. A deficiency of epinephrine in the suprarenal glands produces Addison's disease, whichis characterized by the formation of tumors, feeble heart action, bronzed skin, and progressive anemia. The injection of adrenalin into the blood accelerates the heart action, diminishes the tumors, and increases the general tone of the body. In 1852, Chatin pointed out that goiter was more prevalent in those districts where the soil lacked iodine. Baumann in 1895 recognized iodine as a hormone of the thyroid gland, and in 1916, E. C. Kendall of the Mayo Foundation isolated this hormone in crystalline form. He gave it the name of thyroxin. In 1927, Harington prepared a synthetic product which gave the same physiological effect as thyroxin. Iodine was first used in the treatment of goiter in 1820 by Coindet, a Geneva physician, and has since been used in the treatment of simple or edemic goiters which are caused by iodine deficiency. As yet, i t has not been fully determined whether or not iodine relieves exophthalmic goiters. The hormone of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland has been found
by chemists to be very important in the body growth of the individual. A deficiency in secretion causes dwarfism while an over-secretion causes gigantism. Robertson prepared tethlin, a name given the fraction obtained from the pars anterior of ox pituitaries and alcohol, and the subsequent precipitation with dry ether. This product is claimed to give all the characteristic effects of the anterior lobe of the gland. Its complete value is not yet knbwn. The hormone of the posterior lobe of the gland is known as pituitrin. Recently, however, Dr. Kamm of Detroit, according to the press, has separated pituitrin into two parts designated as alpha and beta. Alpha is used to reduce the suffering in childbirth and beta is expected to help many in surgical cases and in cases of severe burns, as well as to control the water in the body cells. Chemotherapy is coming into its own by the extraction of such drugs as digitalis, ouabain, quinine, and quinidine, which have a very definite therapeutic action in several diseases. Chemists have found an antidote for the heavy metal poisonings in sodium thiosulfate, commonly called "hypo" by the photographer. When the system becomes poisoned by the concentration of mercury, lead, or arsenic in the kidneys, this salt renders these metals inert immediately when introduced into the body through the mouth or directly into the blood stream. In 1902, Blumenthal, a German, produced atoxyl, wbich he prepared by heating aniline and arsenic acid. This was used to treat sleeping sickness. Now the Bayer company of Germany has prepared a drug named Bayer 205 wbich is still more successful. The sodium salt of acetylsalicylic acid, kpown commercially as aspirin, is used for gout, rheumatism, and in cases of high fever. Chemistry has made other contributions to medicine, such as theobromine and tbeophylline, which are being used daily in the treatment of edema, and are relieving thousands of chronic sufferers. Along with these is cinchophen and its derivative, novatophan; valuable drugs in the diagnosis and treatment of gout. The use of poison powders, discovered by chemists, has almost obliterated malaria by the control of mosquito breeding. In the battle against the hookworm, the chemist has given relief to thousands by the introduction of thymol, carbon tetrachloride, and chenopodium. The preparation of antitoxins from toxins by chemists is perhaps one of the greatest blessings of mankind. These antitoxins are built up in the bodies of various animals. For instance, the antitoxin for diphtheria is built up in the body of the horse; then after a certain period, it is removed, thoroughly purified, and then injected into the individual to safeguard him against the disease. In this way, scarlet fever and typhoid fever have already been mastered. Even common colds are being successfully treated by the use of serums and antitoxins. Thus again and again bas the medical profession in cooperation with the
chemists been able to prepare chemical substances of inestimable value in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. It will probably be through such cooperation that the three most dreaded diseases-pneumonia, tuberculosis, and caucer-may finally be wiped off the list of human afflictions by the discovery of a specific for each of these great scourges. Nor shall we reach the end until all the pathological conditions of the human body are understood and medical treatment is shifted from the curing 'of ailments over to the prevention of all diseases. The brilliant achievements of the past make us hope for results which a century ago would have seemed miraculous. We are prepared to expect the wildest dreams of today to become the realities of tomorrow. Bibliography Vallery-Radot, R., "Life of Pasteur." Doubleday, D m n & Co., Inc., New York City, 1928. Stieglitz, J., Editor, "Chemistry in Medicine," The Chemical Foundation, Inc., New York City, 1928. Kahlenherg, Louis, "Chemistry and Daily Life." "Fight Disease with Aniline Dyes," Scintific American, November. 1925. Stieplitz, J., "ChemiNy and Recent Progress in Medicine," The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md., 1924. Sherman. Henrv . C... "Chemistrv of Food and Nutrition." The Macmillsn Co., New York City, 1928. DeKruif. Paul. "Microbe Hunten." Harcourt. Brace and Co ,New Yark City, 1926. Mendel, L. B., "Nutrition: The Chemistry of Life," Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1923. Shermsn and Smith, "Vitamins," Chemical &taltalog Co., New York City, 1922. Pryde, John, "Recent Advances in Biochemistry," P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, 1928. Rolleston, "Century of Medical Progress," Sci. Quart., 245, July, 1925. Emmett, A. D., "Vitamins and Their Relation to Health and Disease."
