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a price of 15 cents a cube and thought it was a great cleansing agent. The “manufacturer” put the price up from 15 to 2 5 cents a cube. This seemed too much, and he decided to investigate and see if he could not obtain the material more cheaply. The cube of material turned out to be paraffine wax weighing about I O grams, and worth 4 cents a pound. We had the other day a sample of coal that analyzed 4 per cent. sulphur. The buyer said he did not understand the analysis at all. That the man who sold him the coal guaranteed i t to be “free from sulphur and B. T.U.”
CHEMISTRY.
Mar.. 1912
No chapter of our statistics is more striking than that relating t o our fire losses, expressed both in terms of human life and property. It portrays realistically the policy of extravagance and recklessness which dominates our nation a t the present time. Mr. Herbert M. Wilson, formerly of the U. S. Geological Survey, in an address before the National Underwriters Association in 1909, estimated the total cost of the fires, for the year 1907, excluding forest fires, b u t including excess cost of fire protection due to bad construction and excess premiums paid over insurance paid, a t $ 4 5 6 , 4 8 j , 0 0 0 , “ a t a x upon the THE RELATION OF THE SILICATE INDUSTRIES TO people exceeding the total value of the gold, silver, CONSERVATION. copper and petroleum produced in the United States B y A. V. BLEININGER. in that year.” The per capita loss by fire in Europe The growth of the American silicate industries, is only one-seventh of what it is in this country, comprising the manufactures of clay products, cement Now it is evident, even to the most casual observer, and glass, is remarkable for its steadiness. The t h a t the replacement of wood as a structural mavaluation of the clay products manufactured in 1910 terial by stone, burnt clay, concrete and steel, under is estimated by the U. S.Geological Survey to have been equitable and properly enforced building codes, would $170,11 j , o a o , t h a t of Portland cement $67,506,000, lower our fire losses tremendously. Certainly a t least and the value of the various glass products for which half of these losses are easily preventable. An exaggerated opinion prevails as to the cost of figures are not yet available certainly cannot be less In the case of dwellings, than $ 7 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . These industries are thus of a fire-proof construction. magnitude which renders them an important factor the cost of wood is not considerably below that of the permanent, structural materials and i t has been shown in the industrial development of the country. The relation of the clay, cement and glass industries in many localities that the difference does not amount t o conservation presents a different aspect from the to more than I O per cent. Owing to the rapid deone commonly considered in connection with the velopment of the clay and cement industries on the mineral wealth of the country, There need be no one hand and the increasing cost of lumber on the fear of exhausting the raw materials required in the other, it is not unlikely t h a t the balance as regards manufacture of the products in question. On the first cost will soon be in favor of the fire-proof prodcontrary, their part in the policy of conservation re- ucts. If permanency, low rate of depreciation and of quires t h a t they be drawn upon on an ever increasing repairs are considered, in addition to the fire-proof scale. Humanly speaking, our deposits of clay, quality, this point has long been reached. The part played by clay and concrete in the conlimestone, sand, gravel, feldspar, soda, fluorspar, etc., are inexhaustible. The more of these materials enter struction of our sewer and sewer disposal systems into our civilization, the greater will be the gain of is so obvious as t o need no particular mention. With the nation inasmuch as thus more valuable materials, reference to the sanitation ‘of the municipal unit, the such as wood, are replaced and made available for single building, a good deal remains t o be done This is especially true where aseptic conditions should more urgent needs. The two factors entering into the manufacture of prevail to as large an extent as possible, as in hospitals, silicate products are labor and fuel. From raw school-houses, railroad stations, theaters and halls, materials of no intrinsic value, the hand of man public baths, slaughter- and packing-houses, manufashions useful products. The interests of conserva- factories of foods, etc. This question certainly pertion are hence principally affected only in so far as tains to the most important of all the conservation these industries make demands upon the common problems, the one dealing with public health. The fuel supply. This need not be a serious factor with clay, glass and enameled iron industries are in position t o furnish us with hard, impervious, glazed proper regulation. The silicate industries may thus be said t o be surfaces, capable of being kept clean or even sterile valuable aids in the cause of conservation in the true where it is necessary. Much needs to be done yet sense of the word. Upon closer analysis, the functions along these lines since the sanitary conditions of of the clay, cement and glass products have an im- thousands of our public and semi-public buildings portant bearing upon a t least four important phases are primjtive t o say the least. As to the function of the silicate products in the of modern civilization : work of controlling our water resources, it is scarcely I . Fire proof construction. necessary to say t h a t a great part of this activity 2 . Drainage, sanitation, and the control of the water would have been utterly impossible without the resources. enormous use of Portland cement. 3. The construction of permanent roadways. One of the leading problems confronting this genera4. Improvement of domestic and public housing conditions through the agency of a permanent architec- tion is the ubiquitous question of good roads. This need is so thoroughly realized b y our citizens that any ture and the influence of th6 artistic handicrafts.
attempt to present its ecmomic importance, especiallJ- as related to the haulage of farm products and interurban transportation, would be unnecessary. All agree t h a t the prevailing system of road construction and maintenance is futile and t h a t , sooner or later. recourse must be had t o permanent roads. While, in the nature of the case, native road material is t o be usecl t o as large a n extent as possible, the adoption of artificial surfacing vii-ill become necessarJin man)- cases. In the states of the Middle n'est, for instance, the combination of vitrified brick and concrete offers a most promising solution of t h e problem. The sucress of this kind of pavement is splenclidls- illustrated in Sorthern Ohio where, for instance, Cuyahoga County has several hundred miles of these magnificent country highn7ays. The fictile arts are also in position to serve t h e cause of a more permanent civilization b y enabling the people t o develop more fully t h e artistic aspect or' our communities. This side of the question must not be underrated. The day has passed when all t h e energy of a vigorous people is of necessity concentrated upon the fundamental development 'of t h e country. Xore leisure and wealth is now available for the work of beautifying our homes, towns and cities. There is no doubt but t h a t the ceramic industries are rising splendidly t o t h e occasion as is evidenced by the achievements of t h e terra cotta makers whose success in executing t h e bold designs of architects eclipses t h e x o r k of t h e European clayworkers and the accomplishments of t h e mall tile and mosaic manufacturers. the makers of structural pottery, etc. I n pottery, while we have still much t o learn, i t is extremely gratifying t o note t h a t our production in 1910 represented a value of $33,784,000, while the imports during the same year mere valued at $ 1 1 , 127.000. With t h e development of greater technical skill and especially with broader conceptions of the harmon!- of design and color this industry can reasonably expect t o cut down the importation of European products t o a very much smaller figure. The enormous increase of 99:8j per cent. in the valuation of American potter>- during t h e last ten years entitles us t o t h e above expectation. One factor operating against the Xmerican manufacturer is the prejudice of the public (justified in t h e past) in favor of the imported products, a condition which is slowly being overcome by higher standards of excellence. Upon examining the ceramic industries from the standpoint of economy, we shall find t h e faults of rapid development. However, the question of t h e conservation of t h e raw materials does not enter t h e situation seriously. A peculiar condition prevails in the pottery industry where me find considerable quantities of raw materials, such as china clay, ball clay, and Cornish stone imported from England. This is not due t o t h e lack of suitable materials in this country b u t , in part, t o custom, since many of our potters are of English descent and are familiar with t h e excellent English clays, and, in part, t o the fact t h a t our clal- resources are not as thoroughlJ- known and
appreciated as they should be. There is no question b u t t h a t fine pottery can be made from native materials a n d , indeed, a certain amount of t h e clay as well as all of the feldspar and flint used are obtained from American sources. In fact, a good deal of white ware is even now being made exclusively from our own raw materials. There is need, however, of acquainting the pottery industry x+th the properties of all the available native raw materials, and their correlation would be extremely desirable. This is especially true since the desire has been expressed in Europe t h a t the export of china clay, etc., to the United States might be prohibited. Such an enactment would prove a blessing in disguise for the American potter. The most important criticism which might be made of t h e ceramic industries, from the standpoint of conservation, is their reckless 1vast.e of fuel. Periodic kilns are still used most exclusively-. Of six kilns examined b y the writer a t six plants, the one most economically operated shom-ed a n efficiency of less than 20 per cent., i. e . , of I O O pounds of coal used, only 2 0 were applied in heating the ware. This is especially objectionable where high-grade fuel, like natural gas or crude oil, is being employed. By utilizing the heat of the cooling ware and walls for drying purposes, the great fuel loss in ceramic kilns may be diminished decidedly. The use of continuous kilns, either with fixed contents and traveling fire as in the Hoffniann type, or of t h e tunnel kiln, with fixed furnaces and moving cars, carrying the ware, embodying t h e principles of recuperation and preheating would bring about a tremendous saving of fuel. Continuous kilns are used to a large extent in Europe. Thus Germany alone possesses several thousands of these kilns, and it has been estimated t h a t their use effects a saving of from 50-70 per cent. The Portland cement industry which formerly was conspicuous for similar extravagance has reduced t h e heat losses decidedly by the construction of the long rotary kilns now generally installed. Decided improvements are still to be made as far as the glass tank and pot furnaces are concerned where regeneration or recuperation might be carried t o greater development. A large field is also open in the reduction of cost by labor-saving machinery and mechanical devices, in spite of the fact t h a t a great deal has been accomplished. Rapid progress is beisg made, however, of which there are striking instances, such as the modern glass-blowing and pressing machines, the settling machines of the clay industry and many other less important devices. By thus reducing the cost of the silicate products, the cause of conservation is promoted in a far greater degree than is generally realized. D ISC U S S I O S .
~ I K .DOREZIUS: There is a point in connection with this paper which is worth noting, in the construction of small buil ings within city limits, necessarily fire-proof and within the requirements of the build-
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ing laws. The building has the ordinary studding, about 4 feet apart, covered with tarred paper; over the tarred paper chicken fencing wire with open mesh is placed. On this is squirted a mixture of sand, cement a?d water, the mixture in one hose, and water in the other hose. It is fire-proof and, if necessary, can be made water-proof, and if you want t o pull it down you can do so with a pickaxe. The walls of cement are made l/, inch thick on either side. The cement may be a beautiful white or gray color, and is practically impervious t o moisture. The two hoses are carried around easily; the sand nozzle is lined with rubber; the sand does not affect the rubber as it does a nozzle made of steel without the rubber protection. The man stands and squirts this mixture on as you squirt with a garden hose. A square yard of surface is covered in a couple of minutes.
NEW USES TO REDUCE ABUSES IN CONSERVATION. B y W. R. WHITNBY.
I believe the unmodified word conservation is an unfortunate choice. To conserve is “to keep from loss, decay or injury : to preserve.” Conservation is defined as the act of conserving, and to be conservative is to be “adhering to the existing order of things, opposed t o change or progress.” No good research chemist can afford to stop a t such conservation. There is an active as there is a passive conservation ; this could probably be defined as efficient utility. Considering the mineral resources of our country, we will concern ourselves with the maximum in efficient utility or be left behind. A certain wellknown Corsican once said: “You cannot make an omelet without breaking an egg.” There are plenty of signs t h a t birth and growth in everything calls for the breaking of eggs and the question of efficiency is the one of interest. If you merely save your eggs, they will rot. I have collected a very few of the cases illustrating the trend of chemical work towards such active conservation. During the past ten to twenty years, the chemists have been developing new uses for new materials very rapidly. A few years ago titaniferous iron ores were useless. Today those containing the highest proportion of titanium oxide are being mined and the A few ferro-titanium sold b y the thousand tons. years ago quartz could hardly have been considered an ore. Today thousands of tons of silicon and ferrosilicon are being sold annually. A few years ago tantalum and columbium ores were merely of interest as museum specimens. Now they are being worked for the tantalum, and doubtless the niobium will soon be utilized. A few years ago rutile was used only in collections of minerals. It is now mined in large quantities and used in various forms in arc lamps and ought to find use in alloys. A few years ago chromium had little use and metallic manganese was a curiosity, Now the two metals are used b y the ton as pure metals in alloys for electrical resistance. They replace much greater quantities of German silver and other expensive alloys. Ten years ago tungsten was conserved in tool steels only, while today i t is saving the equivalent
Mar., 1 9 1 2
of millions of dollars annually in power used for lighting. A few years ago emery was mined and was our best abrasive. Today we have artificial fused alumina and artificial carborundum, and emery is being conserved for those who later may want t o see the natural material. Here, too, time and energy are being conserved with the same output of grinding, A few years ago extensive mining operations had to be carried on to supply the graphite we use. Today t h a t material is artificially produced from coal, which can be mined very much more economically. I t is not far back to the time when aluminum was brought into use. It now greatly helps the conservation of copper. Poor farming land in our southern states is being worked for monazite sand, and our houses are being lighted by its use in gas mantles. This use of an ore is of our decade.
----_MINERAL LOSSES IN GASES AND FUMES. BY F. G. COTTRBLL. In considering the mineral wastes passing out of the stacks of our smelters and metal refineries, we must distinguish clearly between the gases themselves and the clouds of suspended solid and liquid particles which they mechanically carry along with them. I n which class a material belongs, often depends, t o be sure, on temperature. Many metallic compounds are actually vaporized in the furnaces and gradually condense from gases into clouds of solid particles with the progressive cooling of the gas streaming through the flues. Arsenic in the form of the trioxide is usually the last of these materials to condense, since even down t o 150’ its vapor tension is sufficient to permit the loss, in the gaseous state, of several tons a day from the largest plants. But below, say 125’ C., we may fairly consider for ordinary technical purposes t h a t the only important element in the gaseou: state is sulfur, in the form of dioxide. Detailed consideration of these losses of solids is given . elsewhere in this issue of THISJOURNAL as well as in a previous article by the author1 and still earlier by W. C. Ebaugh.2 For many centuries the material nature of gases and the fact that they actually possess weight escaped the’chemist. Even to-day a distinct effort of mind is required t o sense the vast tonnage of the clouds we see floating away so lightly from smelter and power-house stacks. There are many single stacks in this country, from each of which over five tons of gas issue per minute, while in isolated instances this is exceeded several-fold. Aside from carbon, the element which is lost in t h e greatest tonnage is unquestionably sulfur. Many of our western ores will run from 2 5 t o nearly 40 per cent. sulfur and a plant smelting 1,000tons of ore per day is a t present considered to have a very moderate capacity. The largest plants will easily touch 1 2
THISJOURNAL, 3, 543-550 (Aug., 1911). Ibid., 1, 686-689 (Oct.. 1909) and 2, 372-3 (Sept.. 1910).
