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The Role of International Chemists in Developing Countries and the Pre-Requisite for Their Success Ephraim Muchada Govere* Ecosystem Science and Management, College of Agricultural Sciences, 116 Agricultural Sciences and Industries Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

Chemistry is central to the sustenance of all lives, and all matter is nothing but a composition of chemical constituents. This makes chemistry a central science to all life sciences, and the role of chemists paramount and indispensable in removing constraints and impediments to worthwhile living. Citizens of developed counties benefit from the immense contribution from chemists in terms of chemical knowledge, processes, technology, and products. However, because of their small numbers and many impeding forces, chemists in developing countries have little impact and the overwhelming majority of living in these countries are being robbed of their lives due to abundance of diseases, malnutrition, and unhealthy environments. Chemists from developing countries can play a big role in these countries especially by improving chemical education and availability of food, safe water, and medicines. This is only possible if the chemists from developed countries are culturally competent enough to understand the needs of, and work in collaboration with, those who need the help. Good chemistry between those giving help and those receiving it is vital for a successful outcome. This chapter starts by shining light on the characteristics of chemists from developed countries by answering the question “What is a Chemist?” The second section of the chapter describes what is meant

© 2017 American Chemical Society Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

by the term “developing country”. The third section presents chemical education, food and nutrition, and health problems of people living in developing countries and how chemist may help alleviate these problems. The last section challenges the chemist to become culturally competent as a pre-requisite to playing an effective role in developing countries. Only through understanding and collaborating with the people who need the help will the chemists’ intentions in developing countries produce sustainable positive outcomes.


What Is a Chemist? According the United States Department of a Labor (1), chemists “conduct qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses or experiments in laboratories for quality or process control or to develop new products or knowledge.” They are mostly employed by architectural, engineering, and related services; basic chemical manufacturing; federal, state, and local government; pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing; and scientific research and development services. To the American Chemical Society (ACS), a chemist is someone who has successfully completed an undergraduate chemistry curriculum and obtained a degree certified by ACS’s Committee on Professional Training. The ACS guidelines for a certified chemistry degree is based on “the institutional environment, faculty and staff, infrastructure, curriculum, safety, undergraduate participation in research, student skill development and program self-evaluation with the goal that programs provide professional chemists with the training and experience necessary for successful careers.” (2). Students seeking a certified degree need instruction that is equivalent to one course in each of five foundation areas (analytical, biochemistry, inorganic, organic and physical), four in-depth courses, and 400 laboratory hours beyond the general chemistry level that cover four of the five foundation areas (p. 965) (2). The 2015 ACS guidelines added more emphasis on non-chemistry skills such as written communication, teamwork, and ethics. There are also various organizations that define chemists based on passing some chemistry education and competence examination. For example, in USA, the National Registry of Certified Chemists certifies various specialist chemists such as chemical hygiene officers, clinical chemistry technologists, clinical chemists, environmental analytical technologists, toxicological chemists, and toxicological technologists based on education, examination, and excellence (3). European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences (EuChemMS) defined a “European Chemist” in terms of twelve attributes based on professional specific kills, competencies and training (4): 1. 2.

Make significant personal contributions to key tasks in the employment area and understand fully the chemistry objectives of the work done Demonstrate a high level of appropriate professional skills in the practice of chemistry 22

Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Develop chemistry and other professional skills as required for the career development 4. Demonstrate an understanding and appreciation of Health, Safety and Environmental issues including international standards and adhere to the relevant requirements relating to the role 5. Evaluate critically and draw conclusions from scientific and other data 6. Demonstrate an interest in broader developments in chemical science 7. Demonstrate integrity and respect for confidentiality on work and personal issues. Demonstrate other professional attributes such as reliability 8. Plan and organize time systematically, demonstrate foresight in carrying out tasks 9. Write clear, concise and orderly documents and give clear oral presentations 10. Discuss work convincingly and objectively with colleagues, customers and others. Respond constructively to and acknowledge the value of alternative views and hypothesis 11. Demonstrate the ability to work as part of a team also on multidisciplinary projects 12. Exert effective influence on the work of others


3.

In developed countries, a chemist is therefore a professional whose training at University level and post-training function is in chemistry as a basic and applied science. The characteristics of a chemist described above tend to imply that a chemist is someone whose work setting is mainly a laboratory. The overwhelming majority of people in developing countries do not know what a chemical laboratory and a chemist is. In fact, in many of the countries, there is no equivalent name or vocabulary for “a chemist”. Normally, we would like a participatory approach to international development. That is, the affected people should identify and define the problem they face, brainstorm potential solutions or alternatives, and then select the most plausible options to implement that achieve their specific objectives or meet their specific needs. If it is a health problem, the people in developing countries tend to know who to approach: doctors and nurses. They do not associate their health issues with a chemist. It is common to hear villagers in developing countries talk about shortage of doctors and nurses. These villagers have clear understanding of what a doctor is, and what a nurse is. The villagers even have their local traditional equivalence of doctors and nurses, but they have no chemist equivalent. Do they know what a chemist is? Do they know what role a chemist can play in their community? The answer is mostly no. In fact, they think that all medicines are discovered and produced by doctors. Therefore, what role can this “unknown (chemist) entity” play in developing countries? In Zimbabwe, I witnessed a multimillion dollar project on rural afforestation. The project objectives included establishing village fuelwood as well as pole trees, fruit trees, shade trees, medicinal trees, hedge trees, and ornamental trees; also trees as feed for domestic animals such as cows, goats and donkeys, and for edible insects such matsimbi (mopane worms or Gonimbrasia belina) and hururwa (green stink bug or Encosternum delegorguei). For fuelwood, fast growing 23 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


trees were needed. Some of the tree seeds were collected from different places including various eucalyptus seeds from Australia. A Coordinated Agricultural Rural Development (CARD) Committee was formed to coordinate the project efforts. The CARD had at least one professional representing animal, crop, water, forest, veterinary, natural resources, wildlife and fisheries, soils, an entomologist, plant pathologist, and other social services professionals such as health inspector, education director, and local government administrator. It never came to anyone’s mind that CARD needed a chemist among its members. In fact, there was no single chemist at the provincial and district professional functional levels. The project failed in areas that needed the trees most, the drylands, due to lack of chemical characterization of the planting sites, ineffective chemical pest control products and methods of application, and unidentified plant diseases. I had to recommend the involvement of an agricultural chemist, a plant pathologist, an entomologist, an analytical chemist, and a biochemist. This illustrates that the role of chemists in developing countries is not well recognized. There is need to make chemists part of the community they serve so people can define them by their function and not by certified degrees they obtained from colleges or by the laboratory results they post by mail to their clients.

What Is a Developing Country? Since this chapter deals with the role of a chemists in developing countries, we have to be clear on what a developing country is, so that chemists who want to help do not end up in, for example, South Korea or Israel, thinking they are developing countries. In addition, the chemists will have some idea of what to expect when they make a decision to play a role in developing countries. It is not always rosy working in a developing country. It is a sacrifice a chemist should be prepared to undertake. By the United Nations count, there are currently 195 countries (independent states) in the world. The majority (54) are in Africa, followed by 48 in Asia, 44 in Europe, 33 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 14 in Oceania, and 2 in North America. The countries whose people suffer from high incidence of disease, infant mortality, protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, unemployment, low industrial activity and utilization of resources, and high dependence on other nations to meet their basic biological and physiological needs are referred to as developing countries. These include countries referred to as least developed countries (LDC), underdeveloped countries, Third World countries, less industrialized countries, or low income or poor countries. The United Nations’ Development Policy and Analysis Division uses the economic status of a country to place it into one of its three classification categories: developed economies, economies in transition, and developing economies (World Economic Situation and Prospects [WESP], 2014). A country with (gross national income (GNI) per capita of less than $1,035 is classified as a low-income, that with $1,036 to $4,085 as lower middle income, a country between $4,086 to $12,615 as upper middle income and one with more than $12,615 as a high-income country. The low-income and lower middle income countries are listed in Table 1. 24 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Table 1. The 2014 Developing country classification by the United Nations’ Development Policy & Analysis Division.


Table 1. The 2014 developing country classification by the United Nations’ Development Policy & Analysis Division Low-Income

Lower Middle Income

Bangladesh

Armenia

Benin

Bolivia

Burkina Faso

Cameroon

Burundi

Cape Verde

Central African

Congo

Republic

Côte d’voire

Chad

Djibouti

Comoros

Egypt

Democratic Republic

El Salvador

of the Congo

Georgia

Eritrea

Ghana

Ethiopia

Guatemala

Gambia, The

Guyana

Guinea

Honduras

Guinea-Bissau

India

Haiti

Indonesia

Kenya

Lesotho

Kyrgyz Republic

Mauritania

Liberia

Moldova

Madagascar

Morocco

Malawi

Nicaragua

Mali

Nigeria

Mozambique

Pakistan

Myanmar

Papua New Guinea

Nepal

Paraguay

Niger

Philippines

Rwanda

São Tomé and

Sierra Leone

Principe Continued on next page.

25 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Table 1. (Continued). The 2014 developing country classification by the United Nations’ Development Policy & Analysis Division Low-Income

Lower Middle Income

Somalia

Senegal

Tajikistan

Sri Lanka

Tanzania

Sudan

Togo

Syrian Arab Republic

Uganda

Ukraine

Zimbabwe

Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen, Rep. Zambia

The United Nations classification may or may not match with classifications by other international players. The International Monetary Fund uses GNI per capita, export diversification, and degree of integration into the global financial system as criteria for country classification. The US Agency for International Development (USAID) has a low income/lower middle income classification of countries (Table 2) that it uses for aid distribution, and it may or may not match with the United Nation’s classification (6).

Table 2. USAID’s list of low income/lower middle income countries Afghanistan

Guyana

Papua New Guinea

Angola

Haiti

Paraguay

Armenia

Honduras

Philippines

Bangladesh

India

Rep.

Belize

Indonesia

Rwanda

Benin

Iraq

Samoa

Bhutan

Kenya

São Tomé and Principe

Bolivia

Kiribati

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Korea, Dem Rep.

Sierra Leone

Burundi

Kosovo

Solomon Islands

Cambodia

Kyrgyz Republic

Somalia

Cameroon

Lao PDR

Sri Lanka Continued on next page.



Table 2. (Continued). USAID’s list of low income/lower middle income countries Cape Verde

Lesotho

Sudan

Central African Republic

Leste

Swaziland

Chad

Liberia

Syrian Arab Republic

Comoros

Madagascar

Tajikistan

Congo, Dem. Rep

Malawi

Tanzania

Congo, Rep.

Mali

Timor

Côte d′Ivoire

Marshall Islands

Togo

Djibouti

Mauritania

Tonga

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Micronesia, Fed. Sts.

Turkmenistan

El Salvador

Moldova

Tuvalu

Eritrea

Mongolia

Uganda

Ethiopia

Morocco

Ukraine

Fiji

Mozambique

Uzbekistan

Gambia, The

Myanmar

Vanuatu

Georgia

Nepal

Vietnam

Ghana

Nicaragua

West Bank and Gaza

Guatemala

Niger

Yemen,

Guinea

Nigeria

Zambia

Guinea Bissau

Pakistan

Zimbabwe

The chemist, as a scientist, should always strive to use objectivity in deciding which country he or she chooses to play a role. It is an easy call to want to play a role in, for example, South Africa during the World Cup game period. It is tempting to skip Liberia due to historical outbreaks of Ebola. While “killing two birds with one stone” shows efficiency, it should never be used to exploit or take advantage of the most vulnerable, those seeking the chemists’ help. Thus, one of the roles of chemists is to adhere to a professional code of ethics and the four ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, respect for autonomy, and justice when selecting a developing country to render service. The chemist should do some soul searching and be genuine in addressing the following ethical questions related to each of the four principles and every role he or she considers embarking on in a developing country. The questions are slightly modified from those by Beauchamp & Childress (7).


Beneficence •

Why did I choose this developing country? Who benefits from my role in this country and in what way?

Non-maleficence


• • •

Which parties may be harmed by my role in the country? What steps can be taken to minimize harm I may cause? Have risks emanating from my role been communicated in a truthful and open manner?

Respect for Autonomy 1. 2. 3.

Does my role impinge on the personal autonomy of the people I intend to help? Do all relevant parties in the developing country consent to the role I will play? Do I acknowledge and respect that those I intend to serve may see or choose differently?

Justice • • •

Have I identified all vulnerable groups that may be affected by my role? Are my planned actions in my role equitable? How can they be made more equitable? Am I only seeking benefits while avoiding shouldering the burdens as I play my role?

Whatever role the chemist chooses to play in a developing country, it should be devoid of self-interest; the objective should be to benefit the target group in the developing country As an example, some years ago I was hired as a consultant to evaluate Dryland Farming and Afforestation Projects in Australia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe by the land restoration project in drylands in Southern and East Africa by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). We were a team of four and in each region we went, we were joined by some local scientists for a joint tour to the research projects. The places we visited differed in the scenery and environmental hospitality. Some places, especially in Kenya and Zimbabwe, were hot and unbearable and had malaria carrying mosquitos (for example Binga, Zimbabwe) and some places were beautiful highlands with cool weather and/or beautiful sceneries. People from around the world flock to see some of this breathtaking scenery such as the Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe (the largest water fall in the word), and Mount Kenya (the second-highest mountain in Africa). Before we embarked on the evaluation mission, we made sure we had a strict verifiably objective travel itinerary whose schedule was dictated by the project objectives. Without such an itinerary, it is easy to be swayed or tempted 28 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


to spend more time at “fun” places at the expense of other not-so-fun places. Any unfair distribution of time in order to fulfill personal pleasure would have been contrary to the project principles and professional ethics. However, on days we were nor evaluating the project, we had time to ourselves and we visited places or attended cultural functions. That was acceptable because that had no negative impact on our main mission. Another example on this project was that unlike the World Bank Rural Afforestation Project in Zimbabwe, the ACIAR Dryland Farming and Afforestation Projects had some chemists working at Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and the Zimbabwe Department of Research and Specialist Services (DRSS). At one of the meetings I attended, soil pH and nutrient deficiency were identified as constraints to agroforestry. I had just given a lecture on soil pH and nutrient availability the previous month in my undergraduate soil chemistry class and as a soil chemist, I thought I was ready to help. However, the well prepared soil nutrient results and pH notes (see Figure 1 and Figure 2) were meaningless to the farmer unless they were explained in the local languages. That was the dilemma. Kenya has four main local languages (Swahili, Kikuyu, Luhya, and Luo) and Zimbabwe has two (Shona and Ndebele). While Kenya and Zimbabwe are former British colonies and use English as the formal business and higher education medium of communication, the majority of the rural population do not speak or understand English. The groups we met in Kenya and Zimbabwe spoke the local languages. For the soil nutrient results, I tried to look for the Kikuyu, Luhya, and Luo, and for the Shona and Ndebele translation of the terms pH, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. I came up with none. Even the Luo Kenyan Chemist (who graduated from a European University) and I, a Shona Chemist (who graduated from an American University) could not figure out how to translate the information into Luo or Shona. Even though university education in Kenya and Zimbabwe is taught in English, most rural farmers are not English speaking. This is very common in developing countries, especially in Francophone and Anglophone Africa (8). Students are taught using colonial languages that neither the parent, teacher, nor student masters or speaks at home. We failed to connect with the farmers. It is the chemist’s role to ensure that chemistry-related information, products, and technologies are presented in a language of the target group. Chemists planning to serve the developing world should be linguistically competent in order to realize positive outcomes. In this example, we the chemists, used a language the local farmers did not command and hardly understood. Even up to now, I could not find or translate the word pH or the different plant essential nutrients into local African languages. Is there an effort by chemists to translate our scientific jargon into meaningful usable messages? Without effective communication, the role of chemists in developing countries is guaranteed to fail. Unlike the Christian crusade that has made it a point to translate the Bible in almost all languages, the chemistry community tends to enjoy the status quo.



Figure 1. Tree nursery soil nutrient levels.

Figure 2. The concept of pH difficult to translate into languages in developing countries. 30 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

In the Kenya/Zimbabwe project example above, it appears we violated the four ethical principles:


Beneficence: The farmers did not benefit from the vast knowledge we had because of language barrier and we did not benefit fully from the farmers’ indigenous knowledge. Non-maleficence: Harm was caused by the fact that we prepared the documents in a language the farmers did not speak. The farmers were robbed of vital knowledge that could have altered their action to maximize benefits from the project. Respect for Autonomy: Farmers felt powerless in that decisions about the project, including the language to use for project communication, was chosen without their input. Justice: It is unfair that “in Africa, mathematics and science are taught in English and not in an African language, the language pupils and teachers normally speak and command much better than English” (p. 83) (8). “Many Africans admire the visible success of contemporary Asia in all areas of the social and economic lives of Asians but are unable to easily see the connection between this scientific, technological and economic ascendancy of Asia and the use of local languages as languages of instruction and learning in education. If language is understood to be the central feature of culture and development is seen as ultimately a cultural phenomenon, it is not difficult to see the interconnections between language and development” (p. 85-86) (8).

What Are the Major Challenges in Developing Countries and What Roles Can Chemists Play? Developing countries are bubbling and gushing with problems. People living in these countries are enveloped in misery, suffering and hopelessness. They are extremely poor; they do not have enough food to eat or clean water to drink; they lack educational opportunities; and they are faced with dire scarcity of medical doctors, pharmacists, medicines, and even of basic commodities like salt. Both infectious diseases such as AIDS, tuberculosis and meningitis, and non-infectious diseases such as malaria and dengue cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer, are like a wildfire out of control (9, 10). Chemists are not magicians; they cannot make problems disappear into thin air and they cannot solve all the ills, but they can surely play a significant role to better the lives of people living in developing countries. I believe chemists can transform the lives of people living in developing countries through actions that result in: • • •

Better Chemical Education More Food and Better Nutrition Improved Human Health 31 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Help Provide Better Chemistry Education There is no better medicine than education. I know this from experience. I grew up when Zimbabwe was still Rhodesia. When I completed secondary school, or what is high school in USA, I could not get into the only University at that time, the University of Rhodesia. Why? Simply because it admitted only about 1500 freshmen across the whole country and most of the places were reserved for white students at the time. That meant, even with all “A’s” in all required minimum of three “A” level subjects, one would fail to get in because of the limited enrollment for black students. It was even worse for me because initially I wanted to study forestry or dairy science, but those were fields reserved only for whites. Therefore, the limited enrollment plus the wrong choice of the study area spelled automatic doom for me. I was very angry. I knew it was not my fault. I knew it was not my mother’s fault. I knew it was not my father’s fault. I knew it was not my brothers’ and my sister’s fault. I definitely knew it was not God’s fault because my father was a Priest; I read and knew the Bible from Genesis to Revelations. We had Bible studies EVERY evening after dinner. Therefore, I knew what God created, and He looked at it and said it was good. But what good was it that I could not go to a University? Universities are “man-made”. I therefore wrote to the United Nations Secretary General. I knew his name and address in New York through the study of current history. It was the Australian Kurt Waldheim! I wrote a piece of paper from my ruled English note book paper. I have now forgotten the word for word content of my letter but I challenged The Honorable Secretary General Waldheim whether it was fair that those who want to make this world better are denied the opportunity simply because of their place of birth and color of their skin. I expressed my goal to become a forester and save the fast disappearing trees in developing countries and avert desertification and its consequences. Luckily, someone or The Honorable Secretary General himself saw my letter and I was selected as one of the candidates for manpower development for a future independent Zimbabwe. I did not personally apply to any University; I was simply told I was going to come to the United States and attend the guru of forestry education, Oregon State University. There too, during my freshman year, I was the only black student out of about 2000 students in the College of Forestry. For the four years I was there, the enrollment of black students increased to two with the addition of a beautiful highly motivated girl, Glenda Goodwyne from Virginia. After my bachelor’s degree in Forestry management I went back and became the first black Zimbabwean (or Rhodesian) to obtain a forestry management degree. In Zimbabwe I mainly dealt with establishing new commercial pine tree plantations in high eastern highlands and afforestation in the rural communities across Zimbabwe. I realized that understanding the chemistry of soils was critical to plant production, be it forest trees or field crops. I knew we could not intervene with the weather but could understand and manipulate the soil chemical processes and products to change behavior for food, fiber, feed, and flower production. I went back to the USA and obtained Master’s and PhD degrees with focus on nutrient management and plant and soil analysis. I ended up teaching soil chemistry at the University of Zimbabwe. Due to political and economic downfalls, I left Zimbabwe to work 32 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


as a Soil Chemist with Dynamac International Corporation - Environmental Services, a contractor to the USA Western Ecology Division of EPA’s National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. I currently work as the director of a multi-function and multi-user research laboratory. The reason I narrated this story is to show how education can transform boys and girls in developing countries into key players in resolving national, regional and international issues. Solving problems start with education and chemists can play a big role in promoting chemistry education in developing countries at all levels: primary, secondary, and college. They can help with curriculum development, learning materials, and laboratory kits. Engida (11) described the designing and development of low-cost chemistry teaching and learning materials from locally available materials in Ethiopia, as an example. Chemists can participate in chemistry based research and industrial capacity building for developing nations. They can collaborate with charitable educational organizations to donate their extra chemistry supplies and their time as consultants and volunteers. They can work directly with government education ministries in developing nations as advisers to improve on chemistry curriculum to make it relevant (address local issues and practices and use local resources), practical (include more psychomotor domain learning objectives so that outcomes are meaningful and verifiable), and cultural and socially sensitive (incorporate the values and norms of the local society) (12). They can assess the chemical laboratory competencies and help these laboratories secure analytical equipment from donations or grants in developing nations (Figure 3). There are many other ways to promote chemistry education in developing countries. On April 6, 1991 at The Royal Society of Chemistry’s Conference on “Chemistry and Developing Countries”, the role of chemists to advance chemistry in developing countries was highlighted by Mr. Federico Mayor, then Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). He demonstrated how just two professors from the world’s South and North took the initiative to transform chemistry education in India. They sought the support of UNESCO, RUPAC, the British Council, ICSU-CTS and the Commonwealth Foundation and successfully launched a chemistry project that sought to improve chemistry curriculum, increase availability of locally affordable and yet reliable and easy to maintain chemistry equipment and produced chemistry manuals and video-tapes (13). Chemists can play a big role in the current push for microscale chemistry kits for developing countries (14). For example, they can participate in the “Global Microscale Program and Access to Science For All” program jointly implemented by the International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry’s (IUPAC), International Organization for Chemical Sciences in Development (IOCD), and UNESCO (15). The American Chemical Society has put together some chemistry education resources (16). They include guided instructions, lesson plans, classroom activities, video demonstrations, and activity books for elementary and middle school; textbooks, standards and guidelines, investigations and lesson plans for high school and undergraduate students. They also provide effective teaching resources, graduate research directory, program data surveys and reports, lab management, ethical considerations, safety information, mentoring, and career 33 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


guidance for graduate students. However, these resources are more geared towards students in developed nations. There is a need to develop and make available resources specifically for developing nations. The ACS and other societies in developed nations can play a role by having an international education sub-category that will be composed of people devoted to promoting chemistry education in developing countries. Each year, there could be an education theme addressing chemistry issues in a selected geographical area covering groups of developing countries. Chemists Without Borders is one such platform that can be strengthened by the ACS to implement some of their educational programs. This non-profit organization mobilizes chemists to solve humanitarian issues worldwide with focus on water quality, medicines and vaccines, and chemical education (17). Chemists in the ACS international education sub-category can play a big role by actively collaborating with other associations and organizations that are promoting education in developing countries. For example, they can contribute to the UNESCO teaching and learning materials for its Global Project on Microscience Experiments in Chemistry (18). The ACS can also sponsor chemists to attend workshops on chemistry education and research in developing countries. For example, in 2010, there was a workshop to improve analytical chemistry in South Africa (19) but how many chemists from developed countries attended?

Figure 3. Laboratory competence assessment at Makerere University by Dr. Ephraim Govere from Pennsylvania State University. 34 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

The few quotes below sum up the importance of education and should inspire chemists to have a big influence in chemical education: “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.” by Nelson Mandela (20). “Education is our passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to the people who prepare for it today.” by Malcolm X (20).


“The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead.” by Aristotle (21). “If you think education is expensive, try ignorance.” by Derek Bok (22).

Help Provide More Food and Better Nutrition Worldwide, people’s needs can be viewed from the extended 8-level Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (23): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self-actualization.

While the needs of people in developed countries tend to fall within levels 4 to 8, those for people in the developing countries are concentrated in levels 1 and 2. Thus, in developing countries, the paramount needs are the biological and physiological plus safety needs, somewhat similar to those of the wild animals living in Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park, Kenya’s Masai Mara National Park, or South Africa’s Kruger National Park. In search of greener pastures, these animals cross the crocodile-infested Mai Mara River and thousands of them perish before reaching the land of abundant food. People from developing countries would sacrifice their safety (their lives) for biological and physiological needs. For example, the Zimbabweans would risk crossing the crocodile infested Limpopo River to cross into South Africa so they could find some menial job to feed their families in Zimbabwe. The Mexicans would risk dying from thirst, heat, hunger, or suffocating in windowless smuggling trailers on the long trek to 35 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


the USA border to go sneak into Texas or Arizona. Many Sub-Sahara people risk the harsh Sahara desert environment to reach the Mediterranean coast of Libya and for those who make it through the desert, they still risk capsizing and become shark’s dinner on their way to Europe. The driving forces behind this brutal migration are mainly biological and physiological plus safety needs. The foremost important biological and physiological needs are food and water. All living things need food and water to survive and avoid extinction. Yet developing countries are ravaged with hunger or protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency as evidenced by millions of undernourished, malnourished, starving people in developing countries. As a result, of the world’s 161 million stunted, 99 million underweight, and 51 million wasted five-year olds in 2013, more than half lived in Asia and over one third in Africa (24). Micronutrient deficiencies such as iron deficiency cause anemia and results in 20% of all maternal deaths; iodine deficiency is responsible for impaired cognitive development, stillbirths, spontaneous abortions, and congenital abnormalities; and Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness and reduces the body’s resistance to disease (25). Developing countries in Asia and Africa are ripe with these deficiencies. There are many ways chemists can help alleviate the shortage of food in developing countries. Most of the developing countries are in the tropical and subtropical climatic regions. These regions are vibrant with terrestrial and aquatic living animals, insects and plants which are all sources of quality food. Besides wild animals, livestock ownership is very common in rural areas. In sub-Sahara Africa, almost every rural household rears animals. Chemists can lead in the chemical synthesis of feed for both animals and people at the village level. That includes establishing village level animal diagnostic procedures and interventions. Ownership and consumption of animal source food could be one major viable solution, especially to Sub-Saharan Africa which currently has the highest prevalence of malnutrition in the world (26). During my tour of African countries, I witnessed all sorts of insects, plants, and animals being gathered for food. One of the delicacy meals I ate in Mavingo, Zimbabwe was sadza nembeva (corn porridge with fire roasted and dried mice) and sadza neharurwa (corn porridge with stingy bug); sadza nemhasho (corn porridge with roasted grasshoppers) and sadza nemajuru (corn porridge with roasted termites). In fact, the United Nations’s Food and Agriculture Organization (27) estimates that insects form part of the traditional diets of at least 2 billion people. These insects require little effort to manage; they are already prolific even without being managed. For example, without management, an African termite queen can lay one egg every two seconds; thus 43,000 new termites per day from one queen (28). When I visited Northern Uganda in November 2014 to assess carbon and nitrogen input/output in different ecosystems, one farmer asked if America has a type of chemical scent that would attract termites to lure them away from crops (Figure 4). In Southern Zimbabwe, the people asked me ways to lure the termites into containers as a termite harvesting technique so they can enjoy their sadza nemajuru (Figure 5). Chemists can play a big role in coming up with a solution not only to harvest the termites but to make them grow even faster, bigger and more delicious for the Masvingo people. For the Northern Uganda people, chemists can try to come up 36 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


with solutions to lure termites away from fruit trees and food crops. Chemists can maximizing the indigenous resources in developing countries to alleviate hunger and protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency. For example, they can extract nutrients from indigenous resources and concentrate them for easy of storage and distribution. There is also room to come up with novel ideas to provide nutrients inputs for crop production. For example, after I realized that Zimbabwe and Zambia had a lot of igneous phosphate rocks, I thought of a novel idea to use the rock as a fertilizer (Figure 6). Normally it could take two tons of phosphoric acid to acidulate an ingenious phosphate rock to get one ton of single superphosphate fertilizer. With the help of international donors, I came up with a process that reduced the import of phosphate fertilizer by half simply by compacting the imported triple superphosphate with the non-soluble igneous phosphate rock to initiate dissolution of the rock and supply plant available phosphate (29, 30). Similar novel approaches can be taken to produce indigenous herbicides and pesticides from plant extracts and other mineral resources. These technologies derived even from basic chemistry can have great impact on food availability in developing countries.

Help Improve Human Health Developing countries have the highest incidences of communicable diseases such as tuberculosis (TB), sexually transmitted diseases, cholera, typhoid, acute respiratory diseases, and diarrheal diseases (9). These diseases are taking a big toll in terms of lives lost in developing countries. For example, while incidences of tuberculosis have been on a steep decline in developed countries, they are still prevalent in developing countries. WHO reported 10 million children were left without parents as result of their parents’ deaths from TB (31). With the prevalence of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), deaths from TB are increasing especially in developing countries. For example, the TB incident rates in Africa and East Asia are 250.9 to 298.7 cases and 177.0 to 204.7 cases/100,000 pop, respectively, compared to overall world average rates of 123.7 to 133.9 cases/100,000 pop (31). Castañeda-Hernández and Rodriguez-Morales (p. 321) (32) identified lack of “access to reliable diagnostic tests, particularly those that allow to confirm species diagnostics as well to identify those isolates that are not fully susceptible to antimycobacterial first line drugs.” This is an example of the challenges chemists can address in developing countries. Another example is diarrhea, which is spread through contaminated water, food, or object. Worldwide, 2,195 children die mostly in developing countries from diarrhea every day, making it a more deadly than AIDS, malaria, and measles combined (33). Close to 90% of these deaths are attributed to poor water quality, sanitation and hygiene. Can chemists help reverse this trend? Yes, certainly! Chemists can play a big role through indigenous and conventional technologies that prevent or minimize bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms such as Rotavirus and Escherichia coli, which are the leading causes of diarrhea in developing countries (9). 37 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Figure 4. Termites and their damage to maize crop in Northern Uganda.



Figure 5. Traditional way of harvesting termites (Photos A and B); they are eaten after roasting them (Photo C). 39 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Figure 6. Novel Fertilizer Technology: Dorowa phosphate rock (DPR), Dorowa partially acidulated Rock (DPARP) and compacted Dorowa phosphate rock with triple superphosphate (DPR + TSP) compared to commercial single superphosphate (SSP). Not only do developing countries lead in deaths from communicable diseases, but also from non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer and chronic pulmonary disease. It is estimated that by 2020, seven out of every ten deaths in developing countries will be caused by non-communicable diseases (9). Chemist can play a big role in alleviating the burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases in developing countries. Success against these noncommunicable diseases can be achieved by building chemistry training capacities of Universities so that they can produce more doctors and pharmacists and other health professionals. Chemistry is central to knowledge and skills of a nurse, doctor or pharmacist. Without a strong chemistry curriculum at high school and universities, developing countries cannot meet their healthcare human resources needs. Besides strengthening the capacity of healthcare givers in developing countries, chemists can maximize the great medicinal potential of the abundant flora and fauna in these countries to bring great relief to millions of people. For example Africa, which has the worst health related problems among all continents, is home to most diverse medicinal fauna and flora with great medicinal properties. In his book, “Medicinal plant research in Africa: pharmacology and 40 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


chemistry”, Kuete (34) enumerated the overabundance of medicinal properties of plants in Africa. Most notable were the antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral. (35); antimalarial and antiprotozoal (36); and antidiabetes properties of African medicinal plants (37). For example, just in Uganda, Lamorde38 presented an inventory of 103 plant species used by traditional health practitioners (traditional African Chemists) to give hope to HIV/AIDS patients. Through research, chemists can work in collaboration with local traditional chemists and secular chemists and health providers in developing countries to prevent, minimize, and treat illnesses. They can also play a big role in developing technologies for self-diagnosis of common illnesses. Besides human health and food issues, there are other issues chemists can address to improve the lives of people in developing countries. During my visit and assessment of rural farming in Soddo Wolayta, Ethiopia, I realized that farmers were living together with their cows and other animals. In many parts of Africa, cow dung is used to paste the inside wall of huts to control biting insects such as bed bugs and coach roaches. However, the cow dung is smelly. In one of my studies, I found out that horseradish with a peroxide can significantly remove odors. Currently, some scientists in Zimbabwe are assessing the use of a powder made from the seeds of the Moringa Oleifera, commonly known as the drumstick or horseradish tree as a filter to purify water (39). In fact, Wagner and Nicell (40) used horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide as detoxification agent for phenolic compounds. There are many basic chemistry-based approaches and more advanced approaches such as green chemistry (41) that chemists can investigate to make the lives of people in developing countries worthwhile and meaningful.

Cultural Competence, a Pre-requisite for Chemists’ Role in Developing Countries Since developing countries already have an acute shortage of chemists, it means foreign chemists are needed to play major roles to meet the chemical education, food/nutrition and health needs of people living in developing countries. However, the success of these foreign chemists does not only depend on their chemical knowledge and skills, chemical technology and financial resources, motivation and good intentions, but most importantly on their cultural competence. Cultural competence is a pre-requisite for those chemists who want to play a role in developing countries. Thus being culturally competent is not only necessary but essential. Being culturally competent means possessing the values, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and attributes that will allow the chemist to work appropriately, respectfully, effectively and efficiently with individuals from different ethnic, racial, religious, geographic, or social groups. The following questions may help you determine if you are culturally competent to play role in developing countries. 1.

Are you aware of your personal biases, prejudices, and stereotypes about racial and ethnic groups different from yours? You should be aware. 41

Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

2.

3.


4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Biased, prejudiced, and stereotyped people judge others based on their racial, ethnic, social or other type of group memberships (42). Do you speak more than one language? You should learn at least one language substantially different from your own. Language affects the thought process and perceptions and provides a means for self-reflection. Greater language fluency is strongly associated with cultural competence (43). Do you consider your race and ethnicity superior to other races and ethnicities? You should not. There is no scientific evidence to suggest that there is a race or ethnicity that is superior to others. Do you have negative thoughts that come to your mind when you encounter a person from a different racial and ethnic group? You should not. If you do, what you need is to create close relationships across racial and ethnic lines. These relationships will reduce explicit and automatic expressions of racial bias (44). Do you prefer working with people from a specific race and ethnicity? You should not. The more diverse the scientific team, the greater is its impact and outcome because “people from demographically diverse backgrounds bring diverse perspectives that can be leveraged to obtain better task performance, compared with homogenous groups (45).” Do you have suspicions on behaviors of people from other racial and ethnic groups? You should not. As a scientist, cultural sensitivity should be guided by research-based evidence and by your self-awareness and cultural empathy. Self-awareness will reveal your stereotypes, assumptions, values, beliefs, prejudices and biases. Cultural empathy enables you to understand the experiences of people from culturally diverse backgrounds (46). Do you believe in a global community working collaboratively for the common good? You should. Research by Bote, Olmeda‐Gómez, and Moya‐Anegón (47) concluded that the more countries there are involved in the scientific collaboration, the greater the gain in impact. Do you advocate, encourage and serve as a role model in cultural competence? You should. International collaboration is growing exponentially (48). The more culturally competent the collaborating scientists are, the greater the gain in the scientific process, outcome, and impact.

The need for culturally competent chemists is greater than ever before if we are to build a global scientific village where every scientist’s voice can be a force to shape a world without cultural boundaries. It is the role of each chemist to foster a vibrant, peaceful, and understanding global scientific community through connections and partnerships. The individual chemist can only do so much by him/herself. To prepare a modern scientist in this global world, we need a revamp of the chemistry education curriculum especially at the University level. The current curriculum at most universities in developed countries as exemplified by programs at California Institute of Technology (49), University of California Berkeley (50), and The 42 Grosse; Mobilizing Chemistry Expertise To Solve Humanitarian Problems Volume 2 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Pennsylvania State University (51) in Table 3, may not give the chemists the knowledge, attitude, skills, aspiration and inspiration that chemists need to play a positive and effective role in developing countries. More specialization for those chemistry students who want a career in international development should be provided, and a cultural competency certification should be introduced. Chemists have the greatest potential to transform the lives of people in developing countries more than any other profession because chemistry is central to all life sciences and applies to everyday life. The role of chemists in developing countries is not an easy task. As pointed out by Abegaz (2016) (52), there are hurdles and challenges to carrying out chemistry education and research in developing countries. However, the globalization trend is molding the Earth’s 195 sovereign states into a global village and the chemists’ success, like that of any scientific group, will depend on the willingness to carry out collaborative efforts with other professionals from around the world (Govere, 2016) (53).

Conclusion The American Chemicals Society official acronym is ACS Chemistry for Life®. If we, chemists are indeed for life, we should play a significant role in improving the lives of all people, including those living in developing countries. We should not be satisfied when the majority of the world’s inhabitants are not benefiting from our research efforts and discoveries. We should maximize our chemists’ efforts and outcomes by ensuring that the resultant benefits are accessible and benefiting the greater majority of the world’s population. Those greater majority happened to live in impoverished nations. We have to come up with innovative ways to advance chemistry education from elementary to high school, and from undergraduate to graduate levels. We have to make such an education meaningful and useful so that it serves both the immediate and long-term needs of current and future generations. In developing countries, chemistry education should be rooted on meeting biological and physiological needs such as food, drinking water and medicines. Failure to solve the needs of developing countries is not only a professional immorality and gross intellectual negligence, but also self-defeating. The developing countries present a scientific green pasture for new ideas, knowledge, and discoveries that have great potential to benefit people in both developing and developed countries. Those who seek to play a role in developing countries should be culturally competent with a well-rounded professional training.



Table 3. Examples of certified chemistry degrees at undergraduate and graduate level at selected Universities in USA Institute

Level

Major

California Institute of Technology

Undergraduate

Chemical Engineering • Biomolecular • Environmental • Process systems • Material Chemistry • Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics • Inorganic Chemistry • Organic Chemistry • Chemical Physics

University of California-Berkeley

The Pennsylvania State University

Graduate

• Organic Chemistry • Inorganic Chemistry • Chemical Biology • Biochemistry and Biophysics • Chemical Physics • Theoretical Chemistry

Undergraduate

• Chemistry (B.S.) • Chemistry (B.A.) • Chemical Engineering • Chemical Biology

Graduate

Physical Chemistry • analytical, • nuclear, • biophysical, and • theoretical chemistry Synthetic Chemistry • organic or inorganic chemistry Chemical Biology

Undergraduate

• Analytical Chemistry • Physical and Theoretical Chemistry • Biological Chemistry • Synthetic/Biological concentration • Chemical Education • Inorganic chemistry and Material • Organic and Synthetic chemistry

Graduate

• Analytical • Biological • Chemical Physics • Inorganic • Materials • Organometallic • Organic • Physical • Polymer Continued on next page.


Table 3. (Continued). Examples of certified chemistry degrees at undergraduate and graduate level at selected Universities in USA Institute

Level

Major • Surface • Theoretical

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