The Role of the Individual in Innovation - ACS Publications - American

11 The Role of the Individual in Innovation A. H . N I S S A N

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There are possibilities for debate as to whether technological innovation is declining in the United States, and if so at what rate. But I believe no doubt can be sustained, at least amongst us industrial chemists and chemical engineers that the economic welfare of this country is critically dependent on technological innovation. By extension, since social and political well being are built on economic foundations, our health and strength as a nation and our influence in the community of nations are solidly based on our abilities to innovate and compete technologically in the open and restricted markets of the world at large. The Inner Temple -- The Self Since we a l l know the distinction between invention and innovation I do not need to stress i t , but only to mention i t because of its consequences. Innovation is distinguished from invention by the necessity that an innovation has to succeed commercially to deserve the t i t l e , whilst an invention does not require such success to be allowed as an invention. From this distinction i t follows that whilst an invention can be perfected through the activities of a single person, i t is almost a logical as well as a factual necessity that a technological innovation is a process in which many individuals participate. A novel process, product or service has to be conceived and realized. Next, i t is often tested at a pilot scale with the cooperation of other scientists, engineers, technologists and technicians. It is then reworked and produced on a semi- or ful 1-conmercial scale when many other designers, managers, cost accountants and other specialists are directly and indirectly involved. The final stage of successful marketing brings in other specialists in marketing, selling, financing, contract-writing and a horde of other activities. Here we observe two further facts. The first is an important asym1

Current address: 6A Dickel Road,Scarsdale,N.Y. 10583 0-8412-0561-2/80/47-129-133$5.00/0 © 1980 American Chemical Society Smith and Larson; Innovation and U.S. Research ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.


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metry. While f a i l u r e i s assured i f e i t h e r competence o r the w i l l to succeed i s l a c k i n g a t any one stage, success demands both competence and the w i l l t o succeed a t every stage. Hence, i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s , f a i l u r e i s an orphan while success has many f a t h e r s . The second o b s e r v a t i o n r e i n f o r c e s the consequences of the f i r s t : the cost of the f i r s t step i n i n n o v a t i o n , the conc e p t i o n and f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n of the i d e a i n t o a concrete p r o t o type, may w e l l be o f the order o f only one percent of the t o t a l cost of s u c c e s s f u l l y marketing i t as an i n n o v a t i o n , a reminder of Edison's p r e s c r i p t i o n : 1% i n s p i r a t i o n and 99% p e r s p i r a t i o n . These two f a c t s o f commercial l i f e tend to d i m i n i s h the primary s i g n i f i c a n c e and the e s s e n t i a l r o l e o f the i n d i v i d u a l innovator when the complex process of i n n o v a t i o n i s s u p e r f i c i a l l y examined by the unwary. In my judgment, underestimating the value of the i n d i v i d u a l who conceived and brought f o r t h the innov a t i o n would be a grave e r r o r and a s e r i o u s hazard t o our f u t u r e welfare as a n a t i o n o r as s i n g l e businesses. I v i s u a l i z e the process o f i n n o v a t i o n as a s e r i e s of concent r i c c i r c l e s expanding outwards i n our m i l i e u o r c u l t u r e . When a p e r c e p t i o n o f a problem and an i d e a t o solve i t s t r i k e the would be innovator, a disturbance i s s e t up w i t h i n him l i k e the disturbance created by a stone s t r i k i n g the s u r f a c e of a pond. An impulse i s generated d r i v e n by h i s p s y c h i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l energies and r e s i s t e d by h i s phobias and h i s misconceptions about the world. A wave o f a c t i v i t y i s i n i t i a t e d , expanding outwards as successes provide p o s i t i v e feedbacks t o amplify h i s drives^and setbacks keep them w i t h i n bounds. Thus, during t h i s i n i t i a l stage, and u n t i l the innovator has something t o demonstrate the promise of h i s ideas t o an o u t s i d e sponsor, most i f not a l l s t r u g g l e s a r e confined w i t h i n t h e i n n e r c i r c l e o f the s e l f . When the innovator has a concrete demonstration of h i s s o l u t i o n t o the problem, h i s a c t i v i t i e s s p i l l over i n t o the outer and l a r g e r c i r c l e of the sponsor, be that the c o r p o r a t i o n of h i s employer, a group o f f a m i l y and f r i e n d s who a r e w i l l i n g t o r i s k an investment i n t o the i n n o v a t i o n , o r a v e n t u r e - c a p i t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n buying r i g h t s o f ownership of p a r t s of the i n n o v a t i o n . Once t h i s step i s taken the innovator i s subjected t o a new set of d r i v e s and brakes, the p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of which i s t h e i r e x t e r n a l i t y t o the innovator. Rewards and punishments do not a r i s e from w i t h i n the s e l f as they have done when the innovator was s t r u g g l i n g w i t h i n the innermost c i r c l e . They a r i s e from w i t h out and a r e p e r c e i v e d as i m p o s i t i o n s . However, they a r e s t i l l d i r e c t and the innovator s t i l l has a f e e l i n g o f being more or l e s s i n charge of h i s own f a t e . Once again, successes a t the p i l o t s c a l e , and as semi-commercial o r f u l l - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n problems are s o l v e d , the innovator's a c t i v i t i e s transcend the outer b a r r i e r s o f the second c i r c l e and s p i l l i n t o the outermost, i n d e f i n i t e l y expanding c i r c l e o f the market p l a c e . Here the d r i v e s and checks, the rewards and punishments not only emanate from e x t e r n a l sources, as those i n the second c i r c l e

Smith and Larson; Innovation and U.S. Research ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.


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d i d , but have a new d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Mostly they a f f e c t the innovator i n d i r e c t l y . Laws which govern h i s new product, process o r s e r v i c e have been made without h i s d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n and are l i k e l y to change without h i s c o n s u l t a t i o n — u n l i k e h i s c o n t r a c t w i t h h i s sponsor. The preferences of p o t e n t i a l customers are not only beyond h i s d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e , but most times beyond h i s knowledge u n t i l a f t e r the event, — again, u n l i k e the ideas and preferences of h i s sponsor which are a c c e s s i b l e to the innovator and even amenable to change by p e r suasion or power-play which the innovator may wish to e x c e r c i s e . I f the p i c t u r e I have sketched of the innovator and the i n n o v a t i o n process has a touch of r e a l i s m i n g e n e r a l , not nece s s a r i l y i n every d e t a i l , c e r t a i n c o n c l u s i o n s f o l l o w : 1) The r o l e of the i n d i v i d u a l innovator i s the heart and center of the e n t i r e i n n o v a t i o n process. L i k e a Greek d e i t y , the innovator occupies the sanctum sanctorum, the t h i r d and innermost room of the temple i n the c r e a t i v e r i t u a l of i n n o v a t i o n . 2) We who c o n s t i t u t e the outer two c i r c l e s i n the innovat i o n process, as employers or as c i t i z e n s r e s p e c t i v e l y , can more e a s i l y be the cause of f a i l u r e than become the motive power f o r success i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n . T h i s i s due to the asymmetry which decrees f a i l u r e f o r the i n n o v a t i o n i f a s i n g l e major l i n k i n the chain of events f a i l s but demands continuous cooperat i v e e f f o r t and success at a l l major p o i n t s of i n t e r a c t i o n before the i n n o v a t i o n e n t e r p r i s e may succeed. 3) Since our p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r f a i l u r e of innovat i o n i n our c o r p o r a t i o n s may become c r u c i a l , sometimes inadvert e n t l y because we have misunderstood the needs of the innovator, or p a s s i v e l y by bur withholding v i t a l l y needed support at a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e , i t i s our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to understand the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the innovator. Only by understandi n g these e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s may we have a reasonable chance of a t t r a c t i n g , h o l d i n g and n u r t u r i n g i n n o v a t o r s , and h o p e f u l l y i n n o v a t i o n s , i n our c o r p o r a t i o n s ; or help guide our s o c i e t y to encourage r a t h e r than hinder i n n o v a t i o n i n the development of our s o c i a l mores and values and the enactment of our laws and r e g u l a tions. Not by Bread Alone What, then, are the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the innovator? To pretend that I can f u l l y answer t h i s q u e s t i o n i s the height of arrogance. Every human, no matter how " o r d i n a r y " we care to t h i n k he o r she i s , i s one of the most complex e n t i t i e s i n God's u n i v e r s e . The innovator i s one of those e n t i t i e s i n every r e s p e c t , w i t h g e n e t i c and c u l t u r a l programs and e n c r u s t a t i o n s , but with a p e r s o n a l i t y f u r t h e r complicated by e x t r a o r d i nary d r i v e s and p e c u l i a r depths and i n s i g h t s i n p a r t i c u l a r areas of the i n t e l l e c t . Indeed, there may not even be a general answer to the q u e s t i o n : "What are the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the



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i n n o v a t o r ? " Each i n n o v a t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y may be unique, w i t h the mold that shaped i t broken, so that no two innovators may be found to share a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Innovators may w e l l belong to Bertrand Russell's p a r a d o x i c a l c l a s s of u n c l a s s i f i a b l e e n t i t i e s . My aim i n addressing t h i s c r u c i a l question i s much more modest. I wish to show three aspects o f t h i s problem: 1) In answering t h i s question, there are f a l s e leads which we should avoid, as they may take us t o wrong c o n c l u s i o n s . I s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e one such f a l s e l e a d which appears to be p a r t i c u l a r l y i n v i t i n g to f o l l o w to f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n s . 2) There are, a t l e a s t , two important q u a l i t i e s of the innov a t o r which appear to be so u n i v e r s a l among innovators — at l e a s t I have not come across an exception to i t i n my s t u d i e s of h i s t o r i c a l and l i v i n g innovators — they demand our s p e c i a l attention. 3) Bearing these two q u a l i t i e s i n mind, one may begin to hope f o r c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s i n t h i n k i n g o f i n c e n t i v e s and b a r r i e r s f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n at the l e v e l o f the i n d i v i d u a l innovator. I s a i d e a r l i e r that i t was necessary to mention the d i s t i n c t i o n between i n v e n t i o n and i n n o v a t i o n . An i n v e n t i o n i s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y culminating i n a l e g a l instrument, the patent. Thus i t s c r i t e r i a f o r success are s t r i c t l y l e g a l and the u n i t of measurements i n a s s e s s i n g i t s value to the innovator i s the area i t claims f o r the s o l e , m o n o p o l i s t i c , use of the i n v e n t o r . A t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n i s , again, a t e c h n o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y but i t culminates with commercial a c t i v i t y i n the market p l a c e . I t s c r i t e r i a f o r success a r e s t r i c t l y economic and the u n i t of measurement i n a s s e s s i n g i t s value t o the innovator i s the d o l l a r or i t s e q u i v a l e n t i n other monies. Thus, i t would appear that an e s s e n t i a l and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of the innovator i s a d e s i r e to make money. I b e l i e v e t h i s i s a f a l s e l e a d . F i r s t , I should e x p l a i n that I b e l i e v e an innovator i s as i n t e r e s t e d i n accumulating wealth as any other human. Some innov a t o r s have indeed amassed wealth on a very l a r g e s c a l e f o r thems e l v e s and f o r t h e i r p a r t n e r s or sponsors. Recent innovators l i k e Henry Ford, Chester C a r l s o n and Edwin Land come to mind. My p o i n t i s not that t e c h n o l o g i c a l innovators are d i s i n t e r e s t e d i n maki n g money but that t h i s t r a i t i s not an all-consuming or c o n t r o l l i n g d r i v e i n a l l i n n o v a t o r s . To prove t h i s p o i n t , I r e a l l y need to g i v e a s i n g l e unequivocal example. I s h a l l give two. I b e l i e v e you can t h i n k o f many others. My two examples a r e the archetypes of i n n o v a t i o n i n chemistry and i n engineering technology r e s p e c t i v e l y , S i r W i l l i a m Henry P e r k i n s , Sr., one o f the founders of i n d u s t r i a l chemistry and Thomas A l v a Edison, the inventor and developer of the i n d u s t r i a l research l a b o r a t o r y , — i n both cases, one should add "among many other i n v e n t i o n s and i n n o v a t i o n s . " P e r k i n s , i n a search f o r s y n t h e s i z i n g q u i n i n e , o x i d i z e d a n i l i n e with potassium bichromate and thereby, at the age of 18,



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discovered the f i r s t s y n t h e t i c a n i l i n e dye: a n i l i n e purple or mauve. With money from h i s f a t h e r and brother and, at f i r s t , using k i t c h e n u t e n s i l s but l a t e r i n a small works near Harrow, England, the young innovator inaugurated the a r t i f i c i a l dye i n dustry. Further work brought f o r t h more dyes based on a l i z a r i n e . But by the age of 36, Perkins abandoned h i s manufacturing and comm e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s to resume pure research, d i s c o v e r i n g the Perkins r e a c t i o n f o r making unsaturated a c i d s and l a t e r devoting h i s l i f e to the study of the Faraday r o t a t i o n of plane p o l a r i z e d l i g h t i n matter by a magnetic f i e l d . Thus, w h i l s t b u i l d i n g a fortune was one of the r e s u l t s of h i s i n n o v a t i o n s , I am persuaded to t h i n k that money was not a c o n t r o l l i n g d r i v e i n h i s l i f e . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d , I think, though i n d i r e c t l y , by the f a c t that a l l three sons of h i s grew up to be s c i e n t i s t s of s t a t u r e — not l e a d e r s of i n d u s t r y or commerce. Thus, W. H. P e r k i n s , J r . became, according to the Senior P e r k i n s ' biographer, J . G. Crowther (1) , "the l e a d i n g organic chemist i n England," and i n the pages of the Encyclopedia B r i t a n n i c a , "one of the foremost s y n t h e t i c organic chemists of the time." His second son, A. G. Perkins became a p r o f e s s o r of t i n c t o r i a l chemistry at Leeds U n i v e r s i t y and h i s t h i r d son, "a well-known e l e c t r o c h e m i s t . " These f a c t s , I b e l i e v e , speak to a p e r s i s t e n c e of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l d r i v e s i n Perkins to dominate h i s l i f e and renders h i s p r o f i t s as r e s u l t s of r a t h e r than causes f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l innovations. What of our other arch-type f o r innovators, Edison? I t was reported of him that he t o l d an i n t i m a t e : "Well, I'm not a scientist. I'm an i n v e n t o r . Faraday was a s c i e n t i s t . He d i d not work f o r money. Said he hadn't time to do so. But I do. I measure everything I do by the s i z e of the s i l v e r d o l l a r . If i t don't come up to that standard then I know i t ' s no good." (2) T h i s c r i t e r i o n does indeed d i s t i n g u i s h the inventor/innovator from the d i s c o v e r e r / s c i e n t i s t t y p i f i e d by Edison and Faraday, each a giant i n h i s c l a s s . But, was the d o l l a r the motivating f o r c e i n Edison's endeavor, or j u s t a s c a l e against which he measured h i s success? We have h i s own words i n a l e t t e r to Henry V i l l a r d who was planning a g i g a n t i c and m o n o p o l i s t i c merger of the Edison General E l e c t r i c with Thompson-Houston and thus c o r n e r i n g the whole market f o r e l e c t r i c l i g h t i n g : " I f you make the c o a l i t i o n , my usefulness as an inventor i s gone. My s e r v i c e s wouldn't be worth a penny. I can only invent under powerful i n c e n t i v e s . No competition means no i n v e n t i o n . I t ' s the same with the men I have around me. I t ' s not money they want but a chance f o r t h e i r ambit i o n to grow." The emphasis was Edison's. V i l l a r d continued on h i s course f o r a merger and as Edison's biographer s t a t e s , "The r e s t l e s s Edison now panted f o r f r e s h pastures, f o r new s u b j e c t s to which he could apply h i s unique i n v e n t i v e t a l e n t s i n h i s own ii

ing

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I emphasize these p o i n t s because they lead us to the f o l l o w c o n c l u s i o n : While adequate and f a i r monetary rewards are as


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necessary to a t t r a c t , h o l d and encourage innovators as they are f o r other d e s i r a b l e personnel i n a c o r p o r a t i o n , they a r e not s u f f i c i e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y when the t r u l y great innovators a r e sought. I f there a r e motivations which are both necessary and s u f f i c i e n t , what are they? L e t us f o l l o w the innovator and f i n d out.


Problem —

A State o f Discomfort

The f i r s t step i n i n n o v a t i o n i s when the innovator p e r c e i v e s a problem which he s e t s out t o s o l v e . What i s a "problem?" Bertrand R u s s e l l i s quoted by D. W. Mac Kinnon (3) d e s c r i b i n g the f i r s t step i n c r e a t i v i t y as "a problem, a p u z z l e i n v o l v i n g d i s comfort." I s h a l l then borrow R u s s e l l ' s concept and d e f i n e the type o f problem which p u z z l e s an innovator as "a s t a t e of discomf o r t . " Now, the most p e c u l i a r aspect of t h i s type of a problem i s that g e n e r a l l y , i t i s a s t a t e o f discomfort which only the innovator f e e l s . The m i l l i o n s of people surrounding him i n h i s c u l t u r e , g e n e r a l l y f e e l no such discomfort. T h i s statement may sound of d o u b t f u l v a l i d i t y f o r , again g e n e r a l l y speaking, a f t e r the innovator has solved h i s problem and removed the cause o f h i s discomfort, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o conceive that the world had not f e l t the same discomfort. The thought may a r i s e that a l l , o r most people, indeed f e l t the same discomfort and were simply w a i t i n g f o r the genius to a r r i v e and remove i t . I t h i n k i t i s important to understand that the t r u t h i s the opposite and that indeed most people not only do not see the problem but a c t i v e l y oppose the meddling innovator who i s t r y i n g t o change the order of t h i n g s . To emphasize t h i s p o i n t , f o r i t i s very important to my t h e s i s , l e t me give two examples. The i n v e n t i o n of the wheel i s one o f the e a r l i e s t of recorded technology. I t appears i n very ancient Summer c a r v i n g s and i n the o l d e s t Egyptian monuments — our two o l d e s t c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Indeed we take the i n v e n t i o n of the wheel t o be such a prime i n n o v a t i o n f o r a t e c h n o l o g i c a l c i v i l i z a t i o n that we d e r i d e f a l s e innovators as t r y i n g to r e i n v e n t i t . Quite c l e a r l y , the need f o r the wheel was p e r c e i v e d a t the very beginning of what I may term "Homo Technicus" and thus the problem of i t s absence, the s t a t e o f d i s comfort, would appear to be u n i v e r s a l . Yet we know of s e v e r a l advanced t e c h n i c a l c i v i l i z a t i o n s which f l o r i s h e d i n pre-Columbian Americas without the b e n e f i t o f the wheel. Put simply, of the very many genuises and innovators who helped t o b u i l d up those c i v i l i z a t i o n s , none f e l t the s t a t e o f discomfort at the l a c k of the wheel s u f f i c i e n t l y t o do anything u s e f u l about i t . I f even the absence of the wheel i s not a cause o f a u n i v e r s a l s t a t e of discomfort, I am persuaded that no other l a c k would cause i t . Another example may be taken from the Roman Empire. By the f i r s t century A.D. — say when Pompeii was b u r i e d i n the ashes of Vesuvius i n 79 A.D. — the Romans had a l l the knowledge which was needed to inaugurate the i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n , o r at l e a s t the e x p l o s i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r i l l i a n c e of the Renaissance. Not only



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did they know the p r i n c i p l e s of the l e v e r , the winch, the gear t r a i n and other mechanisms, but a l s o they had c o n s i d e r a b l e knowledge of energy t r a n s f o r m a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c systems and, of course, of Hero's demonstration of steam power to move t h i n g s . Yet, they were content to use human muscle power to f u l f i l l t h e i r needs, simply because they had a superabundance of s l a v e s . They d i d not even use animal power, which might have l e d to mechanical prime movers. I have heard a p r o f e s s o r of h i s t o r y at a p u b l i c l e c t u r e at Birmingham U n i v e r s i t y , England a t t r i b u t e the f a l l of the Roman Empire, i n a s i g n i f i c a n t measure, to t h i s absence of f e e l i n g f o r the need to use mechanisms — except as toys to amuse the Emperor — when there were no more c o u n t r i e s to conquer, no more f r e s h s u p p l i e s of s l a v e s to c a r r y the burden of day-to-day running of a s o p h i s t i c a t e d empire. T h i s l a c k of s e n s i t i v i t y to a s t a t e of d i s comfort by some genius innovator kept Europe i n a steady s t a t e f o r a thousand years before innovators came f o r t h w i t h h y d r a u l i c hammers and m i l l s , complicated systems of gears and cams, pumps and other t e c h n o l o g i c a l equipment and, of course, the supreme c a t a l y s t of a movable type f o r p r i n t i n g . I hope i t i s c l e a r that the s t a t e of discomfort with the s t a t u s quo f e l t by the innovator i s mostly not f e l t by others at the time. Thus, a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of the t e c h n o l o g i c a l innovator emerges. An innovator has an e x c e p t i o n a l l y low t h r e s h o l d f o r a s t a t e of discomfort with the order of t h i n g s . I b e l i e v e t h i s i n s i g h t i s of c r u c i a l importance i n the r o l e of the i n d i v i dual innovator i n the i n n o v a t i o n p r o c e s s . One

Percent + Ninety Nine Percent

Before I d i s c u s s the c o n c l u s i o n to which t h i s premise leads me, l e t me d i s c u s s an e q u a l l y important second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the innovator. T h i s other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s r e l a t e d to the "Eureka" experience, the "sudden f l a s h of genius" reported of innovators, i n v e n t o r s and other c r e a t i v e people. You remember that Archimedes was i n h i s bath when suddenly, as i f w i t h a b l i n d ing f l a s h of i n s i g h t , he saw the s o l u t i o n to h i s problem of the golden crown. We are t o l d that Isaac Newton was i n h i s garden and, observing an apple f a l l , suddenly saw the u n i v e r s a l law of g r a v i t a t i o n i n a l l i t s majesty. But l e t us go to an innovator to t e l l us of h i s "Eureka exp e r i e n c e . " His experience i s worthy of our a t t e n t i o n , s i n c e James Watt i s one of the most c r e a t i v e innovators i n h i s t o r y . F i f t y years a f t e r the event, he d e s c r i b e d what took p l a c e so v i v i d l y that i t s t i l l has a r i n g of a c t u a l i t y about i t . He was o r i g i n a l l y t r a i n e d and p r a c t i c e d as an instrument maker, p a r t i c u l a r l y of surveying instruments. But i n 1764, he was asked to r e p a i r — note, only to r e p a i r — an a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g Newcomen engine. T h i s he d i d , and to most other engineers, no problems would have a r i s e n . But to young Watt, there was a problem — a " s t a t e of d i s c o m f o r t . " For we f i n d him a year l a t e r , i n 1765, as



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follows: " I t was on the Green of Glasgow — I had gone to take a walk on a f i n e Sabbath afternoon, I had entered the Green by the gate at the foot of C h a r l o t t e St. — had passed the o l d washing house. I was t h i n k i n g upon the engine at the time and had gone as f a r as the Herd's house when the i d e a came i n t o my mind, that as steam was an e l a s t i c body i t would rush i n t o a vacuum, and i f a communic a t i o n was made between the c y l i n d e r and an exhausted v e s s e l , i t would rush i n t o i t , and might there be condensed without c o o l i n g the c y l i n d e r . I then saw that I must get q u i t of the condensed steam and i n j e c t e d water, i f I used a j e t as i n Newcomen's engine. Two ways of doing t h i s occurred to me. F i r s t the water might be run o f f by a descending p i p e , i f an o f f l e t could be got at the depth of 35 or 36 f t . , and any a i r might be e x t r a c t e d by a s m a l l pump; the second was to make the pump l a r g e enough to e x t r a c t both water and a i r . I had not walked f u r t h e r than the Golfhouse when the whole t h i n g was arranged i n my mind." Thus we f i n d the a c t u a l a c t i v i t y i s not connected w i t h the problem — a walk on a f i n e Sabbath a f t e r n o o n . But, and t h i s i s the c r u c i a l p o i n t , James Watt was " t h i n k i n g upon the engine at the time." So, one must surmise, was Archimedes t h i n k i n g upon the king's crown at the time when he was about to take a bath. And so, one must i n t u i t i v e l y g e n e r a l i z e , were many other c r e a t i v e s c i e n t i s t s and engineers t h i n k i n g upon t h e i r pet problems when they were to a l l o u t s i d e observers performing everyday f u n c t i o n s of l i v i n g , working, or r e c r e a t i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l e n e r g i e s . T h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s the second d i s t i n g u i s h i n g mark of the c r e a t i v e engineer and s c i e n t i s t ; o t h e r s , l e s s c r e a t i v e , are not so "absentmined" f o r they do not make a h a b i t of t h i n k i n g upon the problem so c o n t i n u o u s l y and so p e r s i s t e n t l y . In my view, what i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n a l l these myths and f a c t u a l r e v e l a t i o n s of the c r e a t i v e person i s h i s p e r s i s t e n c e , h i s mental stamina which enables him to w r e s t l e w i t h h i s problem now c o n s c i o u s l y and now s u b c o n s c i o u s l y , at times by v o l u n t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n e n t a i l i n g great e f f o r t and then, when l e s s e r men would f a l l exhausted, to continue the s t r u g g l e at a deeper l e v e l of consciousness and never to give up u n t i l the " f l a s h " s t r i k e s , and even then to go on u n t i l "the whole t h i n g was arranged" i n Watt's mind. Whether i t i s Edison working f o r many years on p e r f e c t i n g h i s i n v e n t i o n s of the e l e c t r i c lamp and c e n t r a l genera t i o n and supply system or W i l l i a m Henry P e r k i n s working "during the Easter v a c a t i o n of 1856, i n my rough l a b o r a t o r y at home" and d i s c o v e r i n g the s y n t h e s i s of a n i l i n e dyes when he was a mere youth of 18, forming a f a m i l y company, b u i l d i n g a chemical p l a n t , and a c t u a l l y marketing the dye i n December 1857 when he was not more than 19 — the same thread of single-minded endurance and stamina runs throughout the many-colored t a p e s t r y of great i n n o v a t i o n s . These innovators seem to f a s t e n onto problems l i t e r a l l y f o r dear l i f e ; they are simply i n c a p a b l e of stopping t h i n k i n g upon the problem.



11.

NISSAN

The

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T h i s f a c u l t y i s not a common one. The average person i s f a t i g u e d f a r more q u i c k l y . I t i s r a r e f o r people, not known f o r c r e a t i v i t y , to d e a l with a s i n g l e problem to i t s u l t i m a t e s o l u t i o n i f such an e f f o r t extends beyond minutes, hours o r , at most, days — at l e a s t not i f they are l e f t to f o l l o w t h e i r n a t u r a l , v o l u n t a r y ways. Thus, we f i n d the innovator possessed of two e x t r a o r d i n a r y qualities: 1) The innovator i s possessed of an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y low t h r e s h o l d to a s t a t e of discomfort with some aspect of the order of t h i n g s , the s t a t u s quo. 2) He compliments t h i s s e n s i t i v i t y with an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y high l e v e l of mental stamina, enabling him to p e r s i s t u n t i l he removes the s t a t e of discomfort, — again, the 99% p e r s p i r a t i o n of which Edison spoke. I know of no other q u a l i t y which i s as u n i v e r s a l to a l l innov a t o r s as these two. In my study of i n n o v a t o r s , admittedly not e x h a u s t i v e l y , I have found no major innovator l a c k i n g e i t h e r of these q u a l i t i e s . Conclusions —

S c r a t c h i n g Where i t Itches and

ROI

What l e s s o n do we l e a r n from t h i s ? I posed the question e a r l i e r that i f monetary rewards were necessary but not s u f f i c i e n t to a t t r a c t , hold and encourage our i n n o v a t o r s , what other i n c e n t i v e s were? I do not t h i n k I can g i v e a l l the i n c e n t i v e s (and per c o u t r a the b a r r i e r s ) but i t seems the f o l l o w i n g two are essential: 1) I b e l i e v e i t was Sommerset Maugham who d e f i n e d "happiness" as " s c r a t c h i n g where i t i t c h e s . " I t seems to me t h i s dictum a p p l i e s to the innovator. I f he shows signs of discomfort, of d i s t r e s s , with the s t a t u s quo of a process, a product or a s e r v i c e , allow him to s c r a t c h where i t i t c h e s . Do not t r y to b e g u i l e him to s o l v e your problems; a l l o w him to s o l v e h i s . I f you have an o r g a n i z a t i o n problem, do not s o l v e i t by t a k i n g him away from h i s problem; s o l v e i t with someone e l s e — but don't f o r g e t to reward your innovator f a i r l y . I f there i s a f i r e to be put out i n the m i l l , f a c t o r y or workshop, be sure to b r i n g i t to the innovat o r ' s a t t e n t i o n . But a l l o w him freedom of c h o i c e . He may smother i t f o r you and c r e a t e another i n n o v a t i o n or he may beg to be excused. In the l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n , l e t him attend to h i s own s t a t e of discomfort. Let him s c r a t c h where i t i t c h e s , but not where you want him to s c r a t c h . He w i l l not experience happiness, even i f you p a i d him well, to do your b i d d i n g . I f he i s not happy w i t h you, you can not blame him i f he leaves f o r greener pastures where he may f i n d a s c r a t c h i n g post more to h i s l i k i n g . 2) Innovations need a p e c u l i a r type of p e r s i s t e n c e , both conscious and unconscious — a type which i s p e c u l i a r l y , probably uniquely possessed by i n n o v a t o r s . We must a l l o w the innov a t o r s to e x e r c i s e t h i s r a r e g i f t . Probably, the most s u b t l e danger, the most insurmountable b a r r i e r to t h i s e x e r c i s e of t h i s p e r s i s t e n c e , i s the use of a c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y powerful eco-



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nomic d i a g n o s t i c t o o l a t too e a r l y a stage. I r e f e r to the concept o f " r e t u r n on investment," the R.O.I. R.O.I, i n the hands of a s k i l l f u l manager, or the t r e a s u r y department can be as e f f e c t i v e as a s c a l p e l i n the hands o f a s k i l l f u l surgeon s e p a r a t ing morbid and dead t i s s u e s from h e a l t h y and v i t a l organs. When a p p l i e d to the c r e a t i v e e f f o r t s of an innovator a t too e a r l y a stage, i t i s a k n i f e to the h e a r t . Since I t h i n k of the innovator as a human w i t h the d i v i n e urge t o c r e a t e , I have o f t e n had, as a research d i r e c t o r , an odd thought about the Great Creator Himself. I would t h i n k that i f the Great Innovator on that f i r s t day, when He " d i v i d e d the l i g h t from the darkness," had a p p l i e d the c r i t e r i on o f R.O.I, to H i s i n n o v a t i o n , I doubt that He would have p e r s i s t ed to the s i x t h day and made man and woman i n H i s own image. For, even now f o u r t e e n t o f i f t e e n thousand m i l l i o n years l a t e r , there i s s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n i n g that He has had any r e t u r n s on H i s investments i n us. Summary In b r i e f , i f a problem needing an i n n o v a t i v e s o l u t i o n i s def i n e d as "a s t a t e o f discomfort i n the i n n o v a t o r , " we f i n d innov a t o r s a r e possessed o f two primary and r a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when compared to the r e s t of the p o p u l a t i o n : F i r s t , they appear to have a very low t h r e s h o l d f o r such d i s c o m f o r t . Secondly, they possess e x t r a o r d i n a r y stamina to stay w i t h the problem u n t i l i t i s solved and they r e v e r t t o a comparative s t a t e of comfort — u n t i l the next time they meet a "problem" which i s no problem to anyone e l s e . Literature Cited 1. 2. 3.

Crowther, J . G., "British S c i e n t i s t s of the Nineteenth Century," V o l . I I , P e l i c a n Books, New York, 1941. Josephson, Matthew, "Edison, A Biography," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959; p. 283; p. 360. MacKinnon, D. W., J o u r n a l of Engineering Education, December 1961, p. 129.

RECEIVED November 13, 1979.


The Role of the Individual in Innovation - ACS Publications - American

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