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The Role of Thermal Activation and Molecular Structure on the Reaction of Molecular Surfaces Gregory J. Deye, Juvinch R. Vicente, Shawn M. Dalke, Selma Piranej, Jixin Chen, and Jacob W. Ciszek Langmuir, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b02099 • Publication Date (Web): 26 Jul 2017 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on July 30, 2017
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The Role of Thermal Activation and Molecular Structure on the Reaction of Molecular Surfaces Gregory J. Deye,† Juvinch R. Vicente,‡ Shawn M. Dalke,† Selma Piranej,† Jixin Chen,‡ Jacob W. Ciszek*,† †
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 West Sheridan
Road, Chicago, Illinois 60660, United States ‡
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University, 100 University Terrace, Athens,
Ohio 45701, United States KEYWORDS: Diels-Alder, subsurface, kinetics, PM-IRRAS, AFM
ABSTRACT: Though surface modifications of organic thin-films dramatically improve optoelectronic device performance, chemistry at organic surfaces presents new challenges that are not seen in conventional inorganic surfaces. This work demonstrates that the subsurface of pentacene remains highly accessible, even to large adsorbates, and that three distinct reaction regimes (surface, subsurface, and bulk) are accessed within a narrow thermal range 30-75 ºC. Progression of this transition is quantitatively measured via polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) is used to measure the thin-film morphology. Together they reveal the close relationship between extent of reaction and the morphology changes. Finally, the reaction kinetics of the pentacene thin-film
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are measured with a series of adsorbates that have different reactivity and diffusivity in the thinfilm. The results suggest that reaction kinetics in the thin-film is controlled by both the reactivity and the adsorbates diffusivity in the thin-film lattice, which is very different than the traditional solution kinetics that is dominated by the chemical activation barriers.
Combined, these
experiments guide efforts towards rationally functionalizing the surfaces of organic semiconductors to enable the next generation of flexible devices.
INTRODUCTION:
The surface chemistry of molecular substrates has recently garnered much attention,1–3 driven by the need to optimize interfaces in organic optoelectronic devices.4–9
Several rudimentary
methods of chemical functionalization have been demonstrated, such as UV-ozone treatment,10,11 where a layer of oxidized molecules are generated at an organic surface and eventually randomly propagated into the subsurface; and homolytic bond reorganization induced by electron irradiation.12
However, the ideal embodiment of surface functionalization would be flexible,
well-defined, and contain chemistry specific to these new substrates. This was first hinted at by Calhoun et al. who showed that it is possible to polymerize alkyl silanes off of oxygen defects on rubrene, in a manner reminiscent of silicon oxide/silane chemistry.13 Though more versatile, defect directed reactions have poor repeatability, as defect coverage is poorly defined, and they leave a majority of surface molecules untouched. The obvious next step was to take advantage of the inherent surface reactivity of each of the molecules on the organic surface. In doing so, adsorbate molecules could be appended one per surface molecule and generate robust and welldefined surface structures. 2 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Recently, a surface modification approach which fulfills these requirements has been demonstrated.
We have published work on the reaction of acene surfaces (linearly fused
benzene rings), whereby traditional solution chemistry has been used as a template for surfacebased reactions.3,14,15 The acene substrates were particularly appealing as they contain electron rich π-systems, and are primed for classical Diels-Alder cycloaddition chemistry.16
In the
solution phase, this chemistry has been applied to anthracene prolifically (thousands of publications available in the literature), providing ample guidance for this approach. Additional advantages include modest reaction conditions, no side-products, and the compatibility with various functional groups. We have demonstrated that a host of molecular adsorbates can be reacted at the interface of these organic substrates using Diels-Alder cycloaddition chemistry (Figure 1).3 Acene thin-films that are exposed to volatile dienophiles react, one per surface molecule, forming the same species as is produced via traditional solution chemistry.14 This application of classical synthetic chemistry to organic surfaces appears a powerful addition to the needs of materials scientist and has the potential to usher in a new chapter in surface chemistry.
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Figure 1. General mechanism for the Diels-Alder reaction between gas phase Nmethylmaleimide and a pentacene thin-film. Curved arrows indicate the direction of electron movement during covalent bond formation.
The challenge here is that the field of organic surface chemistry is in its infancy, and as such, there is little precedence for modeling surface reaction behavior. It is inadequate to directly compare the reactions on organic thin-films to the reactions on traditional inorganic surfaces. Acene molecules within the lattice interact exclusively through weaker noncovalent molecular interactions (van der Waals, π-interactions) and the intermolecular spacing is quite large (Figure 2). In comparison, inorganic counterparts have strong metallic or covalent bonds between atoms, and spacing between atoms is below van der Waals distances.17
These
differences bring two new features to the surface reactions on organic thin-films. First, the noncovalent makeup of the lattice means significant voids exists within the solid, and channels are common. These channels present a pathway for larger adsorbates (>3 Å) to diffuse into the solid, one that does not exist in inorganic substrates. For example, crystalline thiohydantoins and carboxylic acid derivatives have been completely consumed during their reaction with gaseous alkyl amines, facilitated by small channels within the lattice.
18–20
This subsurface accessibility
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contrasts with traditional inorganic surfaces, where subsurface reactivity is confined to mono/di/tri-atomic adsorbates.21,22 Second, the weak interactions mean the lattice is susceptible to significant deformation at or near room temperature, resulting in another mechanism for the organic vapors to diffuse into the solid. For example, vinyl bromide readily diffuses into calixarene crystals at -5 ºC despite the structure lacking channels.23 Both features suggest that the occurrence of subsurface and bulk reaction might be common in organic solids, and should be examined when developing surface functionalization methodologies.
Figure 2. Differences in lattice spacing for inorganic and organic substrates are illustrated. Figure scales are consistent to allow comparison. (a) Au(111) with a thiol monolayer on top adopts a (√3×√3)R30º structure. Red spheres (sulfur) are drawn in a hollow site position for visual simplicity since the chemical bonding motif is dramatically more complex.24 (b) Unit cell of tetracene.25 Because of the potential for adsorbates to readily diffuse into the subsurface, we have reexamined the reaction of vapor dosed dienophiles onto acene thin-films.
Herein, we
demonstrate that the subsurface and bulk of acene thin-films are accessible to a Diels-Alder reaction if the reaction is thermally activated. In the case of extensive reaction, topological changes occur; these are assessed and correlated to the chemical changes in the film. This 5 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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methodology is then extended to various adsorbates/acene combinations, and the trends in kinetics allow us to assess whether diffusivity outweighs the influence of chemical activation barriers, in terms of determining reactivity.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Materials. All metals used for evaporation were of 99.9% or greater purity. Sublimed grade pentacene and tetracene were commercially obtained and used without further purification. Adsorbate source material used in the reaction of acene films (N-methylmaleimide, maleic anhydride,
maleimide,
N-methylsuccinimide,
and
tetrafluorobenzoquinone)
were
also
commercially obtained and are of 97% or greater purity. ACS grade chloroform was used for solution phase kinetic studies. Preparation of Acene Thin-Films. Microscope slides (11 × 25 × 1 mm) were piranha cleaned (3:1 H2SO4: H2O2), rinsed twice with 18 MΩ deionized water and sonicated for 20 min. The substrates were rinsed with copious amounts of 200 proof ethanol before drying under a stream of nitrogen. Substrates were placed in a Kurt J. Lesker NANO38 thermal evaporator for metal deposition. At a base pressure of 5.0 × 10-7 Torr, a chromium adhesion layer (5 nm) was deposited, followed by 50 nm of silver, and 50 nm of gold (all at 1 Å/s). Immediately following metal evaporation, the organic semiconductor was deposited using a home built sublimation chamber with a source to sample distance of 16–17.5 cm. 60 nm of acene were sublimed onto the metal-coated substrates at a base pressure of maleimide ~ tetrafluorobenzoquinone while the reactivity trend for the pentacene thin-films is N-methylmaleimide > maleimide > tetrafluorobenzoquinone (Figure 7). Thus both phases have an identical activity series for the adsorbates. Within this broader 17 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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conclusion, there is also reoccurring evidence that the solid structure plays a role measurable role. Similar to the previous experiment, reactivity differences are dampened in the solid state. For example, N-methylmaleimide reacts 2.6 times faster than tetrafluorobenzoquinone on pentacene thin-films and 6.7 times in solution. This difference in ratio indicates that the size and shape of the reactant, and the interaction between the thin-film and the reactant contribute to the subsurface reactivity. There appears to be one exception to this trend: maleic anhydride (although this molecule is also the least reliable among the four with the largest standard deviation). We speculate that the larger variation (and potentially its difference in activity) is because the reaction temperature is close to maleic anhydride's melting temperature (52.8 °C)38 but far from the others (all exceeding 94 °C). Thus, small variations in temperature have outsized impacts on the phase of maleic anhydride. Nevertheless, the results show maleic anhydride has moderate reactivity in solution while it is was the most active in the thin-film. It is also worth highlighting the relationship between maleimide and Nmethylmaleimide.
In solution, N-methylmaleimide reacts faster than the unsubstituted
maleimide with pentacene. This also occurs in the thin-films (Figure 7), which noteworthy as the N-methylmaleimide contains an additional methyl group which contributes steric hindrance to the reaction. While this does not impact solvated molecules appreciably, it was surprising that there were minimal effects at the surface. The consistent trend in reactivities between solution and thin-films lends further support to the hypothesis that adsorbate diffusion in the thin-film plays a more limited role in the reaction kinetics. This is a bit of a surprise as packing and steric effects were quite pronounced on the surface Diels-Alder reactions of tetracene single crystals.14
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With the wide range of substituents that can be appended to the adsorbates, this represents an interesting avenue to pursue.
CONCLUSIONS Reactivity of molecular substrates was evaluated by performing the Diels-Alder reaction on acene thin-films. Structural features of this class of materials such as intermolecular spacing and weak noncovalent molecular interactions were instrumental in the ability of gaseous adsorbate molecules to react at both surface and into the subsurface of the substrates. PM-IRRAS revealed elevated reaction temperatures exaggerate this effect; complete reaction of the pentacene substrate (with N-methylmaleimide) occurred at a temperature only 45 °C higher than monolayer coverage. Reaction into the subsurface also caused considerable morphology changes on the surface, as shown by AFM. Reactions of pentacene and tetracene films revealed lattice energy did not limit reactivity appreciably. Rather, the systems behaved as they do in the solution phase with chemical activation barriers appearing to be the primary determinant of reactivity, though some exceptions (maleic anhydride) shows empirical precedence from solution is not always a perfect predictor for describing reactivity of molecular substrates. The results ultimately demonstrate molecular substrates react like an amalgam of solid-state and solution factors.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT Supporting Information. IRRAS spectra of a 25 °C reaction, PM-IRRAS of a 75 °C thin-film, AFM images of thin-films at multiple temperatures, average diameter surface protrusion
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measurements, statistical rms roughness values, rms roughness of region between surface protrusions, AFM thickness measurement of a 50 °C thin-film, UV-vis kinetics spectra and PMIRRAS of multi-adsorbates experiments.
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