Barbara AnBchl Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, N e w York
The Royal Society-
300 Years of Science
To'kxperiment and to observe rather than to rely upon the deductive methods of the ancient Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle, and to cooperate with scientists of other countries-these were the principles upon which Christopher Wren, Robert Boyle, Dr. Jonathan Goddard, Seth Ward, Sir William Petty, Dr. John Wilkins, John Evelyn, Lord Brouncker, and others founded the Royal Society of London. The society received its first charter of incorporation in 1662. Now, three hundred years later, the Royal Society is the oldest continuous organization for the advancement of science the world over. Although a private and nongovernmental body, it advises the government on scientific appointments and the disposal of public and private grants for research. Further, i t is responsible for British international participation in the field of science. This it carries out through membership in variousinternational unionswhich belong to the1.C.S.U. The story of the Royal Society really begins in 1645 when a group of young amateur scientists started meeting together in a kind of luncheon club, sometimes a t the home of Dr. Goddard, the physician, other times a t the Mitre in Wood-street. Later they moved to the Bull-head in Cheapside and finally to Gresham College, which was founded almost a century before to provide London citizens with lecturers and a meeting place. Then, when civil war erupted between King and Parliament, the Royalists were defeated; and Cromwell and his rump parliament took the rule. All supporters of the King were forced to leave their governing positions. Since Oxford had been loyal to the King, even heads of colleges had to make peace with the new government or leave the country. Many fled. To fill these vacancies Parliament chose men such as Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Goddard, Dr. Wallis, and others. Those men left in London continued their meetings, but many of their members were missing, and Cromwell's soldiers used Gresham College for barracks. Meanwhile, those men in Oxford kept alive their scientific pursuits, and Oxford became a haven for those who wished to study science. These men organized themselves into the Philosophical Society of Oxford in The author, a student under Prof. Jay R . Gould of the Rensselaer Department of English, was graduated in June 1962, with a MS degreein Theory of Communicationand Techniod Writing.
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1'651; they met a t Dr. Petty's lodgings a while, then at Dr. Wilkins' lodgings a t Wadham College, and finally a t the lodgings of Robert Boyle. When Charles I1 came to the throne in 1660, they returned to London and continued their meetings, pnce again a t Gresham. These men were amateurs in that they were mostly doctors, lawyers, and nobles having no formal scientific training, only an interest in the "new philosophy," or natural science. Coming on the heels of the Renaissance, they especially admired Copernicus, Galileo, Gilbert, and Kepler, whose achievements required systematic observation and experiment. They stood firm in their belief that only by experimental research could natural science be advanced. Not for them the cold, detached, deductive reasoning of the syllogism. Thus it was in 1660 they took the first step in deciding to start a society to promote natural knowledge. In the intervening two years their activities found favor with Charles 11. When they petitioned for royal approval to incorporate, he was pleased to accommodate them. Hence, on July 15, 1662, the Royal Society received its charter bearing the Great Seal of Charles 11. Whenever they possibly could, the Fellows, as the members called themselves, performed their own observations and experiments. They mere not above the most practical of problems, and their experiments ran the gamut of science: physics, anatomy, geometry, astronomy, navigation, statics, mechanics, and natural experiments. From these fields, the Fellows discussed and experimented upon such subjects as the circulation of the blood, the Copernican hypothesis, nature of comets and new stars, the several phases of Venus and Mercury, improvement of telescopes, the grinding of glass, acceleration of the descent of heavy bodies, vacuum effects, and the force of gunpowder. Such experiments were proposed a week in advance. At this meeting the Fellows debated as to the best method of performance. For instance, if the subject were the circulation of the blood, they would discuss all they knew about it, which might include knowledge obtained from other observations, hooks, or previous individual work. They discussed all popular beliefs, possible problems and hindrances, and all work that had gone before. No doubt this included theories from the ancient Greeks to Galen and Harvey, who, in 1628, had written that blood pumped from the heart circulated
through the body. After observing the experiment, they reviewed each stage, collected results, and drew conclusions, trying not to dogmatize. When they had established facts, they experimented further upon them. The Fellows tried to improve upon their discoveries and use them toward new learning. Furthermore, they did not ascribe any set pattern of experimentation but sought to deep themselves free so that they could adapt themselves to individual circumstances. In other words, they felt that each problem was unique; so they sought the most fruitful method of inquiry. Thus, we see the developing of science as we know it today. International Cooperation
The Royal Society has always stressed international cooperation in science. From its very beginnings it has made friends with foreign scientists and has actively carried on a correspondencewith them. In 1665, the first number of the "Philosophical Transactions" appeared with a secondary title of "Philosophical Transactions: Giving some Accompt of the Present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious in many Considerable Parts of the World." It contained original contributions from Newton, Boyle, Flamsteed, Hooke, Cassini, Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek, and others; accounts of work done in other countries; and descriptions of books published both a t home and abroad. It gave scientists widespread publicity, recording everything of scientific importance. We can see the striving for international cooperation particularly in time of war. In 1776, the Society sponsored a scientific expedition headed by James Cook to explore the Pacific coastlands. He was a t sea when the War of Independence broke out. American captains and commanders were issued instructions to spare his ship, for as Benjamin Franklin, then a Fellow, said, Cook's mission was "an Undertaking truly laudable in itself, as the Increase of Geographical Knowledge facilitates the communication between distant Stations, in the Exchange of useful products and Manufactures, and the Extension of the Arts whereby the common Enjoyments of human life are multiply'd to the benefit of AIankind in general." Also, during the Napoleonic Wars Sir Humphrey Davy-as a member of the Society-was allowed, by Napoleon's special permission, to travel freely on the continent; he was even honored a t a dinner given by leading French scientists. Further, during this period, Joseph Banks, then the Society's president, repeatedly and successfully persuaded the French to free prisoners who were scientists and to return their collections t o them. All during these wars, the Society did not discriminate, since Frenchmen inclnding Cuvier, Lacipide, and Gay-Lussac were elected to it. In 1783, the Academie Royale des Sciences asked the Royal Society to cooperate in a survey to connect the Greenwich Observatory with the Observatoire Royale in Paris to determine the difference in longitude between the two. King George 111extended a grant for this work, and the triangulation wtts completed in 1787. Although the Royal Society exchanged ideas with other groups from the very beginning, 1898 was an important year. For a group of German academies invited the Society to form an international association. Shortly thereafter, with the French, Russian,
and United States academies, they met in Weisbaden to plan for a General Assembly of Academies. In 1899, they decided on triennial meetings of the Assembly to be conducted in two sections: one in natural sciences, and the other in studies based on scientific principles not included under "natural sciences." The Academies first met in Paris in 1900, thereafter in different countries. These meetings continued until the outbreak of World War I. Then after the war, on the initiative of the Royal Society a new international research council was formed to further scientific relations. Activities were again intermpted in 1939, a t the start of the second World War. But by 1943 the Royal Society had begun reviving international scientific relations by communicating with both Soviet and American Academies of Science. By 1946 the Assembly was meeting again. Also a t the end of World War 11, the Royal Society took part in a conference in London of ministers of education from allied countries who wanted to create an international group that would promote education and culture. Such a group would fulfill some of the ambitions of the United Nations. They finally formed UNECO, the United Nations Educational and Cultural Organization, the name of which was later changed to UNESCO, since it included science in its workings. Some more activities that the Society took part in include its joining the Pacific Science Association in 1928 and participation in many expeditionary activities. Also, the Society took part in work a t international research stations such as the marine biological stations a t Naples and Bermuda in 1952, and the Jungfraujoch High Altitude Research Station for research on cosmic rays, high altitude physiology, and allied matters. The International Geophysical Year from July 1957 to December 1958 was the greatest example of scientific cooperation in history. More than lifty nations combined their resources for research on the behavior of planet Earth, studying cosmic rays, the aurora, the ionosphere, solar activity, geomagnetism, gravity measurements, meteorology, seismology, accurate longitude and latitude determination, glaciology, and oceanography. The Royal Society had a major role in this research. It participated actively and won wide acclaim for its expedition to the Antarctic. The Society also helped organize the tracking of the first artificial earth satellite, launched by the USSR Recently, the Society and the USSR Academy of Sciences have been exchanging delegations of lecturers, senior scientists, and research workers for the purpose of furthering science. Indeed, to the benefit of all nations, the Royal Society has taken full advantage of that part of its legal ratification, issued by Charles 11, that provides for international communication: And for the improvement of such Experiments, Arts, and Sciences as the Society may be imploy'd in, full Power and Authority is granted unto them from time to time by Letters under the hand of the President in the presence of the Council, to hold Correspondence and Intelligence with any Strangers, whether private Persona, or Collegiate Societies or Corporations, without any Interruption or Molestation whatsoever; Provided that this Indulgence of Grant be extended to no further uee than the particular Benefit and Interest of the Society, in matters Philamphical, Mathematical, and Mechmicd. Volume 39, Number 7 7, Ncvember 1962
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