The Rutherford Atom Revisited While first-year college textbooks explain the origin of the nuclear theory of the atom, the statement that the nucleus is positively charged is not explained. Neither the Rutherford theoretical equation, based an the assumptions that the nucleus is a point charge (structureless) and that the Coulomb inverse square law is applicable, nor the Geiger-Marsden a-particle deflection experimental results distinguish the charge. The results are identical far a positively (a-particles repelled) or a negatively charged (a-particles attracted, as in a satellite going around a planet). In fact, Rutherford wrote, "The main deductions from the theory are independent of whether the central charge is supposed to he positive or negative."' In the mathematical treatment, the hyperbolic trajectory of the a-particle remains the same as the nucleus is shifted from the convex side (tnucleus) to the concave side (-nucleus) of the hyperbola. Rutherford finally used the results of studies on the velocities of a-particle emission by radioactive elements to eliminate the negative charge. Replication of the Geiger and Marsden a-particle experiments in the universe of antimatter would yield the same data. However, the explanation of the emission of a-particles with a kinetic energy much smaller than the harrier of the nucleus and the penetration of the a-particle through a nuclear barrier in forming radioactive nuclei (e.g., 44N + %a bsF k70 :H) awaited the invention of the quantum mechanism tunnel effect. For example, the kinetic energy of an a-particle ejected by ig2Rn is only 5.47 Mev while the barrier height is 27.2 Mev. The probability that an a-particle moving with an energy of 4.54 Mev will tunnel through the $
