The Teaching of Emii Pungor
Institute of General and
Analytical Chemistry Technical University Budapest, Hungary Robert Kellner InstitUte of Analytical Chemistry Technical University Vienna, Austria Analytical chemistry began to develop in the Middle Ages, continued to grow during the so-called Phlogiston Era, and enjoyed a golden age of progress and acceptance during the past century ( I ) . The foundations of numerous fields of modern analytical chemistry were laid in various European scientific schools during the 1800s. The theory of classical analytical chemistry, which essentially is based on the work of Ostwald, began to flourish following the activities of Kolthoff, and the first independent journal devoted to analytical chemistry was initiated during the past century by Fresenius. Because of the advances of the chemical industry in Germany a t the end of the nineteenth century, chemical synthesis became a prime interest to
AyhGalChemistry in Europe has changed drastically. When using classical methods, the analyst had direct contact with the sample, and his or her laboratory skill was the most important factor in the procedure. As shown in Figure 1,this relationship has changed because of the increasing use of automated analysis and robotics. Today, in addition to being skillful in the laboratory, it is important for the analyst to understand what physical phenomena cause signal production and how the data collected can he treated mathematically so as to afford meaningful information. The activities of analytical chemists are wide ranging. In addition to producing reliable results using traditional methods, analytical chemists have to devise new techniques, apply them, and automate them. This range of activities requires skills that are entirely different from those that characterized a good analytical chemist in the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries.
REPOR7 chemists in Europe and organic chemistry developed. In the early part of the twentieth century, physical chemistry developed and analytical chemistry assumed the role of maidservant in the realm of chemistry (in Latin, ancilla chemiae). At European universities, analytical chemistry was a discipline associated with other sciences; and departments of inorganic and analytical chemistry, organic and analytical chemistry, and physical and analytical chemistry were established.
New societal demands boost analytical chemistry The recent increasing societal demands for greater amounts of analytical data have lifted analytical chemistry from the subordinate position it held in the early part of the twentieth century. Such demands are associated 0003-2700/88/0360-623Al$O 1.5010 @ 1988 American Chemical Society
with many aspects of modern life. This need for data has placed analytical chemistry on many new tracks. A steadily growing number of papers authored by American scientists have appeared in ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, and a steadily growing number of papers authored predominantly hy European chemists have appeared in numerous European analytical chemistry journals. Given the growing regard and need for analytical chemistry, it has become imperative to enhance the reliability of analytical methods and to reduce the effects of subjective error. New, rapid, and automated methods of laboratory analysis have made possible sophisticated process control, which has led to the introduction of monitors. Consequently, the relationship between the analyst and the sample to he analyzed
New cunkula respond to modern demands As in the United States, analytical chemists in Europe have confronted modern demands by making basic
Figure 1. As analytical procedures have
become more automated, direct interaction between analyst and sample has diminished.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO, 10, MAY 15, 1988
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changes in the techniques developed during the nineteenth century. This process also greatly influenced the teaching of analytical chemistry. University courses have been constructed to provide chemists with the basic knowledge needed to attain the skills that will he applied in modern laboratories. As the scientific requirements have changed, the academic system has been revised. In a 1979 special issue, Fresenius' Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie focused on teaching analytical chemistry in different countries (Z), and in 1981 an issue was devoted to the challenges in, and effects of, teaching (3). Figure 2. Once obtained from the sample and reagent, analytical Information must The Working Party for Analytical be translated into chemical information (qualitative and quantitative data). Chemistry (WPAC) of the Federation of European Chemical Societies (FECS) conducted a study of how analytical chemistry was taught in Europe in 1983/1984.This study, published in 1985 (4,5),included more than 200 universities. Before examining the results and conclusions of the study, let us pose some important questions: What is the definition of analytical chemistry? How broad is the field? On what I background information should analytical chemistry rely?
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-3 Knowledge for recognition Signal interpretation Flgure 3. A detailed diagram of the analytical process shows the chemist's role in signal interpretation. 6 2 4 A * ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO. 10, MAY 15, 1988
Phllosophlcalaspects of analytical * m W A good definition of analytical chemistry has been the topic of extensive discussion by analytical chemists in Europe. One acceptable definition is the following: the science of signal production and interpretation necessary for the qualitative and quantitative characterizations of materials. According to the general concept formulated hy Malissa, in which an analytical signal is seen to be the result of an interaction between sample and reagent (generally, any source of energy), signal production can be described hy the simple relationship M R-S, where M is the sample, R is the reagent, and S is the signal (6). A resulting complex of signals is called analytical information. Signals may he processed by mathematical methods-for example, transformations or derivations-to yield data smoothing, feature selection, and other results. The choice of mathematical methods used to process data depends on the conditions of the analytical measurement. To translate analytical information as defined above into chemical information (qualitative and quantitative data), a decoding procedure must be applied (see Figure 2). The reliability of the decoding procedure depends on the knowledge of the analytical chemist, which, in turn, depends on the way the chemist was taught and trained. During their studies, university students today must acquire the basic knowledge that enables them to de-
+
I
Figure 4. The relationships among fun-
damentals of analytical chemistry (I), analytical knowledge of a speciflc fleld (11). and knowledge required for a specialist (pie-shaped area). code analytical information correctly. The position of analytical knowledge in the overall scheme of analysis is shown in Figure 3. In contrast to the earlier times, when the practice of analytical chemistry required knowledge of inorganic chemistry and some organic and physical chemistries, modern analytical re-
search and development requires a broad knowledge of inorganic, organic, and physical chemistries, some physics, modern electronics and digital systems, and a thorough knowledge of the specific field in which the work is conducted (see Figure 4). Obviously, this specialized knowledge of a field cannot be acquired during the first years of academic study; therefore, the old European system, in which analytical chemistry was merely a subject dealt with early in the curriculum, has been changed. Almost everyone involved in university teaching believes that academic study only provides the fundamentals of knowledge and impetus for the development of independent thinking. These can then be applied to research in a special field. This is especially true of analytical chemistry because of the vast background that is required. For these reasons, some European universities now emphasize fundamentals of analytical chemistry and present specific analytical subjects in specialized and postgraduate programs. Analytical traMng in Europe Results of the WPAC/FECS survey, published in 1985 (4, 5), are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Of the participating countries (listed in the box), 229 institutions responded to the question-
208 179
126
Flgurs 5. Survey results for European instiMlons with separate chairs for analytical chemistry. (Adapted with permission from Reference4.)
. naire. It is notable that 119 of them have a separate department or chair of analytical chemistry; the remaining 110 do not. As might be expected, institutions that have separate analytical departments or chairs appear to provide a broader education in the field. In many universities in Europe, the undergraduate and graduate years are not implicitly differentiated; thus, the data presented in Figures 5 and 6 refer to the “complete curriculum” during the undergraduate and graduate years. In addition, to obtain a Ph.D. degree in analytical chemistry in Europe, the candidate must prepare a thesis under the supervision of a senior scientist. This thesis is refereed by two experts. However, this differs from country to country and from university to university. Some universities have a supervisor who is also a referee: others have two referees from outside the university. At some universities an oral debate is a prerequisite, whereas a t others the acceptance of the thesis by the referees is sufficient for granting the Ph.D. degree. In a l l cases, the Ph.D. candidate must pass a special examination that requires a broad knowledge of analytical chemistry. The percentages of institutions offering a complete curriculum in analytical chemistry were 16.8% in schools with separate chairs and 4.5% in
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NQ 10, MAY 15, 1988
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75
Ill, Flgure 6. Survey results for European institutions without separate chairs for analytical chemistry. (Adapted with permission from Reference 4.)
schools without separate chairs. A complete curriculum includes all six of the following courses: qualitative chemical analysis, quantitative chemical analysis, physical (instrumental) analysis, biochemical analysis, chemometrics and analytical strategies, and environmental analysis (life and material sciences). A number of conclusions can he drawn from the data presented in Figures 5 and 6. A comparison of teaching hours devoted to analytical chemistry in the two types of institutions (with and without separate chairs) reveals the benefit of having a separate chair. For institutions offering complete curricula, schools with separate chairs have a total of 632 hours of lecture and laboratory, whereas schools without separate chairs have a total of 367 hours of lecture and laboratory. In addition, the breakdown of hours devoted to the six analytical branches reveals that schools with separate chairs are more flexible and can better incorporate new programs. New fields are underrepresented a t schools without chairs, and classical subjects appear to have been cut back without being replaced. Subjects incorporated into analysis courses a t universities with separate chairs now include extraction chromatography, ion-selective electrodes, flow analysis, and chemome-
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trics, to name a few. Today a t the Technical University, Vienna, the ideal curriculum, proposed by Kellner and Malissa (7) and shown in Figure I , is closely approximated. Tables I and I1 indicate the curriculum for the first five years and the specializations the candidates may choose from for the analytical chemistry methods and problems in Figure I. conclusions Analytical chemistry should not he intertwined with other branches of chemistry; it should he a separate discipline. Analytical education should have the following aim: tocreategraduates who not only have the required knowledge and skills in analytical chemistry, enabling them to compete on an international level, hut who also are aware of their responsibility to society and to nature. We have not made a rigorous study such as the one conducted by the ACS four years ago, which revealed that the majority of chemists consider organic and analytical chemistries to he
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lgure 7. Model curriculum for a technical university, including basic education, pecialization, and Ph.D. thesis work. idapted wilh permission from Reference 7.)
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the most important subjects taught a t universities-and the subjects most needed in the course o f their practices (8).However, we believe t h a t analytical chemistry enjoys a similar status in E u rope. According t o a survey done in West Germany and Austria, 20% o f chemists claimed t h a t they dealt predominantly w i t h analytical questions in their daily work. We believe t h a t analytical chemistry i s one of the most, if n o t the most, i m p o r t a n t subjects taught worldwide.
References
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(1) Szabadvsry, F. History of Analytical Chemistry;Pergamon Press: New York, 1966. (2) Fresenius 2.Anal. Chem. 1979,297,2. (3) Fresenius 2.Anal. Chem. 1981,305,Z. (4) Pungor! E.; Kellner, R. Education of
Analytml Chemwtry Ln Europe; Oster-
reichisehe Gesellschaft fiir Mikroehe-
mie und Analvtische Chemie: Wien, Austria, 1985. (5) Kellner, R.;Pungor, E. Modern Analytical Chemistry Education in Europe at University Level TRAC 1985,4(5). (6) Malissa, H.Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 1974,271,91. ( 7 ) Kellner, R.;Malissa, H.Fresenius 2. A d . Chem. 1984.319,l. (8)Chem. Eng. New8 1984,62(43), 30.
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Plenum - 3 s Ern8 Pungor (left)receiued his Ph.D. i n chemistry from the P6zm6ny P6ter Uniuersity (Budapest, Hungary) in 1949.Since 1970 he has beenprofessor and head of the Institute for General and Analytical Chemistry of the Technical Uniuersity of Budapest. In 1976 he became a full member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and he is a member of the advisory or editorial boards of 10 international analytical journals. He has received medals and awards for his achieuements in analytical chemistry and has authored or coauthored more than500scientific articles. Robert Kellner is a professor of analytical chemistry at the Technical Uniuersity, Vienna, Austria. He receiued his Ph.D. from the university i n 1971. His research interests include extreme applications of FT-ZR spectroscopy to micro-, surface, and trace analysis In addition, he has published mort than 80 papers on solid-liquid inter face phenomena, microcontamina tions, metal chelates, and flauor anal ysis.
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