The Teaching of Analytical Chemistry in Europe
Ernö Pungor
Institute of General and Analytical Chemistry Technical University Budapest, Hungary
Robert Kellner
Institute of Analytical Chemistry Technical University Vienna, Austria
has changed drastically. When using classical methods, the analyst had direct contact with the sample, and his or her laboratory skill was the most important factor in the procedure. As shown in Figure 1, this relationship has changed because of the increasing use of automated analysis and robotics. Today, in addition to being skillful in the laboratory, it is important for the analyst to understand what physical phenomena cause signal production and how the data collected can be treated mathematically so as to afford meaningful information. The activities of analytical chemists are wide ranging. In addition to producing reliable results using traditional methods, analytical chemists have to devise new techniques, apply them, and automate them. This range of activities requires skills that are entirely different from those that characterized a good analytical chemist in the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries.
Analytical chemistry began to develop in the Middle Ages, continued to grow during the so-called Phlogiston Era, and enjoyed a golden age of progress and acceptance during the past century (i). The foundations of numerous fields of modern analytical chemistry were laid in various European scientific schools during the 1800s. The theory of classical analytical chemistry, which essentially is based on the work of Ostwald, began to flourish following the activities of Kolthoff, and the first independent journal devoted to analytical chemistry was initiated during the past century by Fresenius. Because of the advances of the chemical industry in Germany at the end of the nineteenth century, chemical synthesis became a prime interest to
REPORT chemists in Europe and organic chemistry developed. In the early part of the twentieth century, physical chemistry developed and analytical chemistry assumed the role of maidservant in the realm of chemistry (in Latin, ancilla chemiae). At European universities, analytical chemistry was a discipline associated with other sciences; and departments of inorganic and analytical chemistry, organic and analytical chemistry, and physical and analytical chemistry were established. New societal demands boost analytical chemistry
The recent increasing societal demands for greater amounts of analytical data have lifted analytical chemistry from the subordinate position it held in the early part of the twentieth century. Such demands are associated 0003-2700/88/0360-623A/$01.50/0 © 1988 American Chemical Society
New curricula respond to modern demands
with many aspects of modern life. This need for data has placed analytical chemistry on many new tracks. A steadily growing number of papers authored by American scientists have appeared in A N A L Y T I C A L
As in the United States, analytical chemists in Europe have confronted modern demands by making basic
EH3
CHEMIS-
TRY, and a steadily growing number of papers authored predominantly by European chemists have appeared in numerous European analytical chemistry journals. Given the growing regard and need for analytical chemistry, it has become imperative to enhance the reliability of analytical methods and to reduce the effects of subjective error. New, rapid, and automated methods of laboratory analysis have made possible sophisticated process control, which has led to the introduction of monitors. Consequently, the relationship between the analyst and the sample to be analyzed
ι
1 ι
1 ι
Classical analysis 1
EHLHZI
Instrumental analysis Automated analysis Automated analysis with robotics
EHZHZHZ1 [WH|HÂ]
S = Sample C = Computer A = Analyst R = Robotics I = Instrument Figure 1. As analytical procedures have become more automated, direct interaction between analyst and sample has diminished.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO. 10, MAY 15, 1988 · 623 A
Reagent Analytical information
I
\f Chemical information
Sample
Figure 2. Once obtained from the sample and reagent, analytical information must be translated into chemical information (qualitative and quantitative data).
changes in the techniques developed during the nineteenth century. This process also greatly influenced the teaching of analytical chemistry. University courses have been constructed to provide chemists with the basic knowledge needed to attain the skills that will be applied in modern laboratories. As the scientific requirements have changed, the academic system has been revised. In a 1979 special issue, Fresenius' Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie focused on teaching analytical chemistry in different countries (2), and in 1981 an issue was devoted to the challenges in, and effects of, teaching (3). The Working Party for Analytical Chemistry (WPAC) of the Federation of European Chemical Societies (FECS) conducted a study of how analytical chemistry was taught in Europe in 1983/1984. This study, published in 1985 (4,5), included more than 200 universities. Before examining the results and conclusions of the study, let us pose some important questions: What is the definition of analytical chemistry? How broad is the field? On what background information should analytical chemistry rely? Philosophical aspects of analytical chemistry
^Analytical information
Signal formation Known chemical information Training Calibration
Chemical information
Recognition (e.g., pattern) Identification
Chemical information
Knowledge for recognition
Signal interpretation Figure 3. A detailed diagram of the analytical process shows the chemist's role in signal interpretation. 624 A · ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO. 10, MAY 15, 1988
A good definition of analytical chemistry has been the topic of extensive discussion by analytical chemists in Europe. One acceptable definition is the following: the science of signal production and interpretation necessary for the qualitative and quantitative characterizations of materials. According to the general concept formulated by Malissa, in which an analytical signal is seen to be the result of an interaction between sample and reagent (generally, any source of energy), signal production can be described by the simple relationship M + R-S, where M is the sample, R is the reagent, and S is the signal (6). A resulting complex of signals is called analytical information. Signals may be processed by mathematical methods—for example, transformations or derivations—to yield data smoothing, feature selection, and other results. The choice of mathematical methods used to process data depends on the conditions of the analytical measurement. To translate analytical information as defined above into chemical information (qualitative and quantitative data), a decoding procedure must be applied (see Figure 2). The reliability of the decoding procedure depends on the knowledge of the analytical chemist, which, in turn, depends on the way the chemist was taught and trained. During their studies, university students today must acquire the basic knowledge that enables them to de-
search and development requires a broad knowledge of inorganic, organic, and physical chemistries, some phys ics, modern electronics and digital sys tems, and a thorough knowledge of the specific field in which the work is con ducted (see Figure 4). Obviously, this specialized knowl edge of a field cannot be acquired dur ing the first years of academic study; therefore, the old European system, in which analytical chemistry was merely a subject dealt with early in the curric ulum, has been changed. Almost every one involved in university teaching be lieves that academic study only pro vides the fundamentals of knowledge and impetus for the development of in dependent thinking. These can then be applied to research in a special field. This is especially true of analytical chemistry because of the vast back ground that is required. For these rea sons, some European universities now emphasize fundamentals of analytical chemistry and present specific analyti cal subjects in specialized and post graduate programs.
Figure 4. The relationships among fun damentals of analytical chemistry (I), analytical knowledge of a specific field (II), and knowledge required for a spe cialist (pie-shaped area). code analytical information correctly. The position of analytical knowledge in the overall scheme of analysis is shown in Figure 3. In contrast to the earlier times, when the practice of analytical chemistry re quired knowledge of inorganic chemis try and some organic and physical chemistries, modern analytical re
Analytical training in Europe Results of the WPAC/FECS survey, published in 1985 (4, 5), are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Of the participating countries (listed in the box), 229 insti tutions responded to the question-
119
(' 00°/< ) Separate analytical chemistry chair
208
ι
P-
ι
institutions
8-
60 (50.4%)
S2
Ο Ο
40 (33.6°/
20 (16.8%)
1
-
,863
1
on0 27
28
u>
.2 to
UJ
If !!
lifilf SillilSB
•m Î -
1
,
ft*
111
SiSSSlf
Figure 5. Survey results for European institutions with separate chairs for analytical chemistry. (Adapted with permission from Reference 4.)
Participants in the FECS/ WPAC study Country Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Cyprus Denmark Finland France Federal Republic of Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Soviet Union Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom Yugoslavia Total responses
No. Of institutions9
4 7 8 2
— 7 9 6 42 3 7 6 23 6 1 9 1 8 2 5 6 2 45 20 229
" Questionnaires were evaluated from each of these institutions
naire. It is notable that 119 of them have a separate department or chair of analytical chemistry; the remaining 110 do not. As might be expected, institutions that have separate analytical departments or chairs appear to provide a broader education in the field. In many universities in Europe, the undergraduate and graduate years are not implicitly differentiated; thus, the data presented in Figures 5 and 6 refer to the "complete curriculum" during the undergraduate and graduate years. In addition, to obtain a Ph.D. degree in analytical chemistry in Europe, the candidate must prepare a thesis under the supervision of a senior scientist. This thesis is refereed by two experts. However, this differs from country to country and from university to university. Some universities have a supervisor who is also a referee; others have two referees from outside the university. At some universities an oral debate is a prerequisite, whereas at others the acceptance of the thesis by the referees is sufficient for granting the Ph.D. degree. In all cases, the Ph.D. candidate must pass a special examination that requires a broad knowledge of analytical chemistry. The percentages of institutions offering a complete curriculum in analytical chemistry were 16.8% in schools with separate chairs and 4.5% in
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO, 10, MAY 15, 1988 · 625 A
110 (100%)
No separate
analytical chemistry chair
ρ125 S ο
ο Ζ ο. 37 (33.6%)
123
-
χ: σ>
75
24
5 6 (4.5%) (5.4%)
r~i
10
η
10
1 f i l Hi Bl
lH iff 1 II lî 1 sf i§.s|
UJ
ϋ aSO
Oteoû-So
w^
aSa-ë-a
CDraOratnuiSS-E
Figure 6. Survey results for E u r o p e a n institutions w i t h o u t s e p a r a t e c h a i r s for a n a l y t i cal c h e m i s t r y . (Adapted w i t h p e r m i s s i o n f r o m R e f e r e n c e 4.)
schools without separate chairs. A complete curriculum includes all six of the following courses: qualitative chemical analysis, quantitative chemical analysis, physical (instrumental) analysis, biochemical analysis, chemometrics and analytical strategies, and environmental analysis (life and material sciences), A number of conclusions can be drawn from the data presented in Figures 5 and 6. A comparison of teaching hours devoted to analytical chemistry in the two types of institutions (with and without separate chairs) reveals the benefit of having a separate chair. For institutions offering complete curricula, schools with separate chairs have a total of 632 hours of lecture and laboratory, whereas schools without separate chairs have a total of 367 hours of lecture and laboratory. In addition, the breakdown of hours devoted to the six analytical branches reveals that schools with separate chairs are more flexible and can better incorporate new programs. New fields are underrepresented at schools without chairs, and classical subjects appear to have been cut back without being replaced. Subjects incorporated into analysis courses at universities with separate chairs now include extraction chromatography, ion-selective electrodes, flow analysis, and chemome-
XR300
Mmfimt
EDXRF SPECTROMETER - . _ j .
5(£
The waiting is o v e r . . . Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) is one of the fastest and most reliable techniques for making chemical analyses of a wide range of sample types.
As a qualitative elemental tool EDXRF has no equal. A clear easily interpreted spectrum display indicates the element present and a computer aided peak identification routine rapidly completes the process.
The all newXR300 EDXRF from Link Analytical offers accurate, precise and extremely rapid multielement analyses for all elements from Na to U in the periodic table. The wide dynamic range of XRF, from low PPM concentrations to high weight % levels, often without the need to dilute the sample ensures that a minimum of sample pretreatment^ is necessary.
To capitalise on the inherent speed of the technique, the XR300 software operates within a powerful multiground environment thus ensuring that the pace of the analysis is not compromised by the need to suspend spectrum acquisition during data reduction operations. From single analyses to fully automated runs, the XR300 has a potential answer to all of your elemental analysis problems. To find out how this powerful instrument can help you why not call us today?
XR300
#%&
ANALYTICAL
240 Twin Dolphin Drive, Suite D, Redwood City, California 94065 USA Tel: (415) 595-5465 Fax: (415)5955589
Link Analytical Limited, Halifax Road,High Wycombe BucksHP123SE. England
Tel: 0494 442255 Telex: 837542LINK HWG Fax: 0494 24129
ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETERS Unk Analytical (France) S.A.RL. 9 Rue Femand Léger, CentreValCourcelle, 91190Gif Sur Yvette, France Tel: (1)6907 7802 Telex: 603849S • LINK Fax: (1)6907 4469
CIRCLE 90 ON READER SERVICE CARD 626 A · ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 60, NO. 10, MAY 15, 1988
LinkNordiskaAB Box 153, 181 22 Lindingoe, Sweden. Tel: 08-767 9170 Telex: 12645 SPECTAB
Link Analytical, (Aus) Pry. Ltd. P.O.Box?, Pennant Hills, N S W , 2120, Sydney, Australia.
Tel: 2-8753130 Fax:02-4841667
Stable Isotopes: The Source Isotec Inc. offers a large selection of enriched stable isotopes and labelled compounds available for research and industry. Deuterium — A wide variety with enrichments to 99.99%. Carbon-13 — Organics, inorganics, sugars, amino acids, etc. . . Nitrogen-15 — Ammonia, urea and other fertilizers — enrichments 10 to 99% Oxygen-18 — Gas, water, multi-labelled compounds. . . Metal stable isotopes — A comprehensive range from atomic number 12 to 82.
Table I. Analytical chemistry courses at the Technical University, Vienna (5 years or 10 terms diploma study)
1 2 3 3 7 8 6 6 9 10
Chemical Analysis I Chemical Analysis II Chemical Analysis III Physical Analysis I Physical Analysis II Automatic Analysis Organic Analysis Environmental Analys s Seminar Modern AC Diploma Thesis
4 2
Methods
2
—
—
5
5
— —
Conclusions
Biochemical analysis Pharmaceutical analysis Clinical analysis
Analytical chemistry should not be intertwined with other branches of chemistry; it should be a separate disci pline. Analytical education should have the following aim: to create gradu ates who not only have the required knowledge and skills in analytical chemistry, enabling them to compete on an international level, but who also are aware of their responsibility to soci ety and to nature. We have not made a rigorous study such as the one conducted by the ACS four years ago, which revealed that the majority of chemists consider or ganic and analytical chemistries to be
Material science Automated analysis Toxicology Forensic analysis Geochemical analysis Extraterrestrial analysis
Thermal analysis
—
tries, to name a few. Today at the Technical University, Vienna, the ideal curriculum, proposed by Kellner and Malissa (7) and shown in Figure 7, is closely approximated. Tables I and II indicate the curriculum for the first five years and the special izations the candidates may choose from for the analytical chemistry methods and problems in Figure 7.
Environmental analysis Food analysis
Micro analysis Surface analysis Electroanalysis
3 3 3 3 3
— — — — — — —
30
Problems
Separation methods Mass spectrometry Atomic spectroscopy Molecular spectroscopy Structure elucidation Chemometrics Trace analysis
Seminars
9 12
—
Table II. Specialization in analytical chemistry
Custom synthesis capability — Just call us! Send for our latest catalog. ISOTEC is THE source of stable isotopes for industry and research.
Lectures Labs (hours per week)
Term
Course
Basic education
Specialization Free selection
|30 3 Φ 20 α.
I
Ph.D. study
j
!
