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T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
initially. All this m e a n s t h a t t h e air is d r i e d i n passing t h r o u g h t h e m a c h i n e . T h e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s f r o m t h e d r y i n g p o i n t of view is obvious. T h e f a c t is t h a t in a n y case, d r y air or r e l a t i v e l y d r y air is t h e real d r y i n g a g e n t . T h i s p r o d u c t i o n of d r y air m u s t be r e g a r d e d as one of t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n t a g e s of t h e m a c h i n e a s a d r y i n g a g e n t , a n d would b e a n a r g u m e n t for r u n n i n g t h e m a c h i n e r e l a t i v e l y f a s t , in o r d e r t o a p p r o x i m a t e a d i a b a t i c conditions. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p r o d u c t i o n of ice, b y t h e freezing of t h e c o n d e n s e d w a t e r , m i g h t h i n d e r t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e engine or m a k e i t necessary t o accomplish t h e cooling in steps. F i n a l l y , a s a h o u s e h e a t i n g e n g i n e , while t h e l a r g e v o l u m e s of w a r m a n d especially m o v ing air would facilitate v e n t i l a t i o n , if t h e expansion was a d i a b a t i c , t h e resulting air m i g h t be d r i e r t h a n considered a d v i s a b l e in houses, t h o u g h a g a i n , it m i g h t be r e m o i s t e n e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e a r r a n g e m e n t s . I t is h a r d l y necessary t o s t a t e t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e of a strictly t h e r m o d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r , a n d d o n o t consider losses b y friction. b o t h m e c h a n i c a l a n d gaseous, nor t h e o t h e r losses-avoidable and unavoidable-in a c t u a l engines. T h e s e losses v a r y so g r e a t l y according t o t h e size a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n , t h a t a general discussion is n o t v e r y profitable. We m u s t r e m e m b e r , h o w e v e r . t h a t t h e o t h e r m e t h o d s of d r y i n g fall f a r s h o r t of c o m p l e t e efficiency, a n d few processes in p r a c t i c e e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e c a l c u l a t e d possibility. I n particular, t h e p r o d u c t i o n of h e a t b y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e electric c u r r e n t is far f r o m a n efficient process, if we a r e t o j u d g e b y t h e d a t a f u r n i s h e d i n t h e p a p e r s o n electric f u r n a c e s a t t h e S e p t e m b e r , 1914,m e e t i n g of t h e Americ a n I n s t i t u t e of M e t a l s (especially p a p e r s b y G . H. C l a m e r a n d C a r l H e r i n g , H. G . D o r s e y , a n d H . W. G i l l e t t a n d J . 14.L o h r ) . O n t h e p r a c t i c a l side, h o w e v e r , i t m a y be s a i d t h a t t h e c o m m o n o b j e c t i o n s t o air as a w o r k i n g s u b s t a n c e do n o t a p p l y . Air h a s a low specific h e a t , which causes t h e c y l i n d e r s t o be b u l k y . B u t if d r y i n g is t o be effected, t h e d r y air m u s t b e p u m p e d o r i n t r o d u c e d in one w a y or a n o t h e r i n t o t h e d r y i n g c h a m b e r e v e n if o n l y b y inefficient diffusion, a n d t h e m a c h i n e suggested a c t s also a s a p u m p . T h e s a m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n applies also t o friction, whereas i n a s t e a m engine expansion can be stopped when counterbalanced b y friction. T h e difficulty of c o m m u n i c a t i n g h e a t t o a i r , unless t h e d i r e c t c o m b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u b s t a n c e t o b e d r i e d , is a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t i n f a v o r of t h e e n g i n e , for in it t h e air is
I
h e a t e d e v e n l y a n d t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e desired. Again, h e a t loss c a n be minimized. I n a direct a c t i n g h e a t engine, a s a s t e a m engine, t h e h e a t proceeds f r o m i n o u t w a r d s , a n d all loss of h e a t b y r a d i a t i o n , e t c . , is a loss of efficiency. I n t h e d r y i n g engine, h o w e v e r , t h e h e a t passes f r o m o u t i n w a r d s , a n d all g a i n of h e a t is gain in efficiency. T h i s a p p l i e s t o t h e e x p a n sion cylinder a n d a t m o s p h e r i c h e a t e r . So far a s t h e compression cylinder is c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y it s h o u l d n o t b e placed inside the d r y i n g chamber, a n d t h u s utilize for d r y i n g t h e v a r i o u s h e a t losses b y friction, e t c . , occasioned b y h e a t i n g t h e air. F o r d r y i n g chemical p r o d u c t s , t h e a v o i d a n c e of local excessive h e a t i n g , aside f r o m i t s wastefulness, is of t h e first i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a u n i f o r m p r o d u c t . N o t only is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e u n i f o r m , b u t t h e circulat i o n of t h e a i r , i. e . , t h e d r y i n g m e d i u m : does n o t dep e n d u p o n a c c i d e n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e differences, b u t c a n be t h o r o u g h l y controlled. Besides, t h e uneconomical irreversible d r o p of t e m p e r a t u r e is a v o i d e d . A c h a m ber of p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n , nor one fitted w i t h elect r i c resistance a r r a n g e m e n t s , n o r w i t h closed pipes, is necessary. A g a i n , b y d r y i n g a t t h e lowest t e m p e r a t u r e possible, t h e loss of h e a t b y r-adiation f r o m t h e d r y i n g c h a m b e r is minimized. T h e low t e m p e r a t u r e d r y i n g is especially v a l u a b l e in t h e case of o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s a s fertilizers, where i t is i m p o r t a n t t h a t chemical changes s h o u l d n o t t a k e place. T h e m o s t serious object.ion t o t h e p l a n is d o u b t l e s s f o u n d in t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e e x t e r n a l a t m o s p h e r e , since t h e m a c h i n e h e a t s t h e air t h r o u g h a fixed t e m p e r a t u r e difference for a given v a l v e s e t t i n g . T h i s c o n d i t i o n m i g h t p r e v e n t i t s use in c e r t a i n places of e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n . It m a y b e said, however, t h a t b y adjusting t h e valves a n d varying t h e speed of o p e r a t i o n t h e engine could b e a d a p t e d for different t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s ; or a n u m b e r of m a chines could be set in series-each m a c h i n e lifting t h e air t h r o u g h a c e r t a i n t e m p e r a t u r e difference-and a v a r y i n g n u m b e r of t h e m used a s t h e a t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e changed. Or a g a i n , t h e m a c h i n e could be set in a closed, h e a t e d r o o m a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of t h e o u t s i d e air c o m p e n s a t e d b y o t h e r m c a n s , leaving t h e final t e m p e r a t u r e lift a n d t h e d r y ing a n d circulation of t h e air t o t h e r e v e r s e d h e a t e n gine. used as a d r y i n g m a c h i n e . Or, finally, t h e d r y i n g air could be h e a t e d higher t h a n necessary, a n d a d j u s t ment made from time t o t i m e b y adding varying q u a n tities of cool a t m o s p h e r i c air. BUREAU OF SOILS, T A R I I T N G T O N D. , C.
ADDRESSES T H E UNIVERSITY AND INDUSTRY' BY NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
At the outset I wish to disabuse your minds of any notion that you may have that I have been invited to speak a t this conference because I am a chemist. 1111 the chemistry I know is such recollection as remains t o me, after 35 years, of Dr. Chandler's most admirable and stimulating lectures. But I have an 1 Address before t h e New York Section of t h e American Chemical Society, Chemists' Club, 1-ovember 12, 1915.
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impression, somewhat strengthened by the number of journals and periodicals which come to my table day by day, that there have been some changes in chemical knowledge during that 35 years, and I am afraid t h a t if I were to attempt t o reproduce any of his excellent instruction you might think me a student not of chemistry but of archeology. The reason why I have been requested to speak is, I think, because in our University we have some very definite and longconsidered ideas as t o the general problem of which this question
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T H E J O C R N A L OF INDC’STRIAL A N D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
before you is a specific instance. It is something that has been on our minds for a long time and about which I am very glad indeed to be able t o have an opportunity t o speak for a few minutes before giving way to those who have special and technical knowledge of the field of your immediate interest. This problem is really one phase of the many-sided problem of social evolution. We are confronted by a peculiar condition which is the result of developments t h a t have been going on in education and in industry for one or two hundred years. Different ‘stages of development have been arrived a t in different nations ,according t o their needs, their opportunities, their national temperaments and the practical demands which have been made upon them. The events of the European war have forced us to compare and to contrast these various stages of development, and they have brought to the attention not only of the man of science and the chemist and the manager of a great industry, but to that of the public and the nations of the world, the varying stages of advancement which have been reached in dealing with this great problem. The problem-if I may use a military term-is from one point of view a problem of mobilization of resources, of men, of facilities, of opportunities for a peaceful war in the interest of science and of industry. The problem from another point of view is a problem of conservation-the conservation of our natural, our human and our institutional resources. From still another point of view i t is a problem in efficiency engineering, applied on a great national scale through a n organized undertaking t o care for the thousand points of contact between theoretical knowledge and practical life. You are dealing here with mobilization; you are dealing with conservation; you are dealing with practical efficiency. You are bringing your minds t o bear, on this particular occasion, on the question how the highest type of educational institution-the University-can cooperate with and serve the practical industrial needs of a civilized people. If you mobilize them, you call them out ready and equipped for service; if you conserve them, you see t h a t they are not wasted or abused; if you follow the efficiency engineers, you make sure that they cooperate t o the fullest extent with the least number of waste processes and on the lowest scale of expenditure. I n dealing with this particular question our minds have been somewhat confused and misled in this country by the fact t h a t we are very loose in our use of the word “University.” You know, I suppose, t h a t in almost any state, except New York, Pennsylvania and one or two more, any three gentlemen may meet together and organize a University under the General Corporation law in a very few minutes: the consequence is t h a t the name has been used in such a way as to confuse the public mind as to the thing and as to the purposes for which real universities are organized. Naturally, you would hardly expect t h e sort of cooperation between University and Industry of which you are thinking, if by “University,” for instance, you mean a doubtless very admirable institution once located in a not distant part of this Borough and known as “Columbia University of Horseshoeing.” I suppose that often where the name Cniversity is used for a college, or for a high school, or for a group of professional schools of one sort or another, the question is asked, why does not this University serve Industry? The reason is because it is not a University. It could not possibly serve Industry because i t has a wrong name, and while the thing which it is trying t o do is doubtless a very excellent and admirable thing, i t is not the thing which corresponds to the name i t bears. Of course the word “University” has a little different significance in various locations, but the significance which it is coming t o bear here in the United States in the minds of those best fitted to judge, is, I think, on the whole a richer and better conception of the term than has yet prevailed anywhere in the world-even in Germany, England or France-
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because we are beginning to see t h a t a University is not primarily a place where young persons are taught, but that it is primarily a Public Service Institution for the conservation, the extension and the publication of knowledge and for the stimulus of the youth who engage in those undertakings; that is to say, in a Vniversity the student is subordinated t o the aim of conserving, extending and spreading abroad human knowledge. In secondary school and in college, human knowledge is bent to the development of the student; he is being given information; he is being disciplined and trained as an end in itself; he is being formed to go higher, to go out into practical life, or perhaps t o become a research student. I n the University, on the other hand, the emphasis is laid on the extension of knowledge and on public service through its application. T h a t is why a school of law t h a t does nothing but train lawyers, even though the): may be the best lawyers, is not a University School of Law. I t becomes a University School of Law, when it contributes t o the science of law, when it investigates and publishes and stimulates investigation and publication. The same is true of a school of medicine. You may train students to be the best physicians, but a medical school is not a University School of Medicine unless in training its physicians i t is also extending and widening medical knowledge and multiplying its practical applications. In order to be a real University Department or a real University School of Law, Engineering, Medicine or Chemistry, i t is absolutely necessary that i t shall be inspired and directed by the spirit of investigation, the restless spirit of research, and by that curiosity which has been the driving power in the whole development of civilization. When a University is a true University, it is animated first of all by t h a t spirit of inquiry, of investigation and of the extension of knowledge, and next by the desire t o relate itself t o the public interests. There we come t o the great question which is forced upon us by contemplating some of the lessons of the European war. We all see now, and we know, what it means t o organize and to order the resources of a nation; what i t means for men owing allegiance to one form of government, revering one flag, representing one set of traditions-we see now what it means for them to be able, and we also see what it means for them t o be unable, to organize their resources, t o mobilize, t o conserve, to develop practical efficiency in the attainment of the national ideal. There are two ways in which t h a t can be done, and both of those we understand: they are made very plain to us by the events of the last sixteen months. T h a t may be done, first, by the heavy hand of Government. The power of the State may be laid upon the indiyidual institution, or the individual human being, or the individual industry, and it may order those individuals and institutions and industries t o take their places in a great national organization. Or it may be done by the voluntary cooperative effort of institutions, individuals or industries. This is the method that is consonant with our American traditions and ideals and that is consistent with the preservation of our principles and habits of life. The great problem before the people of the United States to-day-a problem of which your particular question is a phase-is how, without the sacrifice of the voluntary principle or the freedom of individual initiative or our own individual liberty, we can organize, conserve, mobilize our national resources, intellectual and industrial, for this carrying forward of a great national purpose and a great national ideal. If we are not t o resort to the heavy, and often very clumsy and harsh hand of government, then we as individuals, as institutions and as organizations of industry, must, of our own accord, set about the task of effecting this greater organization. I remember a story that was told some years ago in a political campaign in this city-I think it was by the late Mr. Henry George. It has always seemed to me to be very striking and significant. Mr. Henry George used t o tell about a man
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T H E J O L ’ R S d L O F I.VD17STRI.4L A-lrD EaVGINEERILVG C H E M I S T R Y
who desired a trench dug about his farm. Then he was taken with some sort of illness, and his physician said that he needed a certain kind of physical exercise and that he ought to go out every day and dig, and that if there were not anything in particular to.dip, he ought to go out and dig a hole one day and the next day go out and fill it up, so as t o get the necessary exercise. So this good farmer, while paying money t o a laborer to dig his trench, went out each day to dig a hole and fill it up. “Ti-hy my good man,” said a neighbor, “why don’t you take your exercise in digging something that needs t o he dug; why don’t you dig your own trench?” There is a lesson here for a University. IYhy do things solely for exercise when there are things waiting t o be done for use and for practical application, that themselves give admirable exercise? There is a device which seems to me a practical one t o bring about the cooperation which is ready a t hand; the spirit is there; the desire is there, but there is lack of familiarity with the propcr methods. I am quite convinced that every great Cnirersity should closely associate with its work a group of men from practical life, t o he in constant touch with its expert scholars and investigators in a given field. For example, in the Columbia University School of drchitecturc-one of our great arid important schools-we ha\-e a committee of visitors made up of nine wellknown practicing architects in this country. It is their duty and function t o visit the school, to observe the methods in use, t o make suggestions for the improvement of the work, as well as to relate more closely the work of the School of -Architecture to the profession of architecture in the city of Ken. York. In other words, men are called from their profession to make a link between the public and a University School. \\-e need similar links with all of our great schools in a University given over t o research and higher instruction. You probably do not realize that in the course of a year there are between 5,000 and 6,000 advanced students-graduates of college‘s, scientific schools and other similar institutions in all parts of the worldwho spend a longer or shorter time in receiving training a t Columbia Cniversity. \Vhy should not those who are looking toward this great branch of industry that you represent, have the benefit of contact with a representative body of visitors, advisers and counsellors drawn from that industry itself? LVhy should not those who are controlling and organizing the work of the students have that benefit? And why should not the lines of inquiry into which these young men are being guided, be the lines of inquiry that the needs of your profession and the needs of a country demand a t the moment? That is done,in individual cases. Many of our professors and many men in other Universities are, as individuals, in close contact with industrial leaders and with industrial needs. \Ve have always thought it wise a t Columbia University, to encourage such a relationship. We have wanted the things that were done for the students t o be the things that needed t o be done t o meet‘ the requirements of the public. A Vniversity like ours could do infinitely more than it is doing if two conditions were fulfilled. The first, of course, is the possession of adequate resources for the purpose, and the second is contact with and cooperation from the organized bodies of practical men who are concerned with the management of the industries of the country. If those men would familiarize themselves with what the Universities are doing, if they would see by a short visit how a research laboratory is organized and conducted-what particular has been its problems it is carrying on a t the moment-what success over a given period of past time, there would he a great gain. An immense amount is being done in the very direction of which I a m speaking, b u t it is being done haphazard and i t is being done at endless sacrifice, for we have not yet developed to a point where we have our voluntary organization well enough in hand t o enable us t o use it in this field in ways that quickly and effectively result in national profit.
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I n my judgment the day has gone by when the tariff will ever again be used as it was so long used during the period following the civil war. I think the time will soon come when the tariff will be used as a scientific instrument for filling up the gaps and strengthening the weak places in our national organization. It will not be used t o care for the weak and ineficient, but it will be used to make compact and complete the groups of industries and undertakings that are needed to fill out our national equipment in given fields. IVe must bend our very best energies t o this investment in national organization. JYe have heard voices calling us to do this for years before this war broke out. \Ye have watched the using up of our unsettled territory. iVe have watched the running to waste and the passing into private hands of our water power. \Ye have watched the cutting down of our great forests. IYe have been telling ourselves for )-ears that here was a national problem to be solved, but not until we received the shock and the stimulus of the European war did general public opinion come to see what was mcant by national organization, or by the interlacing and the dovetailing of our resources. The place to begin is where the ground lies rich to be tilled. n’hatever of this has been donc within the past few years has been done haphazard; it has not been done as the result of consistent and thought-out policy. I believe the time has now come for the organized movement of which I speak. I t is time to see whether a democracy, without departing from the principle of individual initiative, without giving up civil liberty for a bureaucracy, can of its own accord and because of its own convictions organize its resources in the public interest, as well as any other nation or any other form of government that exists in the world. The Cniversities-and I am sure I am speaking for others as well as my own-are ready and willing t o help. ,411 they need is ’the stimulus of cooperation-practical contact with the leaders of industry. IVhat the leaders of industry nerd is a better appreciation of the spirit that is animating the Universities. If we could show the people of the United States that a group of Universities and a group of industries were ready, of their own accord, to march forward in this splendid campaign of effective organization, the result would be an immense enhancement of our national prosperity, and a great enrichment of our national life. COLUMBIA LNIVERSITY, NEWYORK
CHEMICAL PATENTS-IV IV-ACTIONS F O E INFRINGEMENT B y SEABUR C.Y MASTICK’ I-THE CASE O F THE LOWER COURT (Concluded) I have stated previously that a suit was brought in 1891 by the Cowles Company against the Pittsburgh Reduction Company for alleged infringement of certain Cowles patents and that, before the taking of testimony had begun in this suit, a patent had issued t o Charles S. Bradley on an application filed by him on February 2 3 , 1883. As a matter of fact the original Bradley application was divided, Patent No. 464,933 dated December 8, 1891, and Patent 90.468,148 dated February 2, 1892, both being issued on the original application. Of these two patents No. 468,148 was the broader and was the one chiefly discussed in the subsequent patent litigation. Before discussing this later litigation we must first consider how these Bradley patents came to the ownership of the Cowles Company, therein seeing the application of certain of the rules as to assignments and contractual rights heretofore discussed. In 188j the Cowles Company had encountered Charles S. Bradley, who was a joint applicant with Francis B. Crocker, in a patent interference involving certain Cowles applications and a joint application of Bradley and Crocker. I n a conference relating to the purchase by the Cowles Company of the joint 1 Special lecturer on Chemical Patents. Engineering, Columbia University, 1915.
Department
of Chemical
