Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on March 26, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: July 15, 1985 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1985-0284.ch013
13 From Data to Information to Knowledge The Problems of Metamorphosis C. ZERVOS Pharmaceutical Research and Testing, National Center for Drugs and Biologics, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC 20204
Rational control of health and environmental risks from technical development requires scientific knowledge which must be acquired through the orderly process of the scientific method of inquiry. Contrary to widely held opinions the latter is no less subjective than other rational human endeavors which require decisions under uncertainty. Indeed, to be applied, the method requires a value system which in ordinary research is supplied by the various scientific disciplines. Because of differences among the disciplinary value systems problems often arise in the interdisciplinary settings of efforts to control risks from technical development. Metrics, the concepts, theory, and practice of measurement is suggested here as a way to deal with such problems. The terms d a t a , i n f o r m a t i o n , and knowledge a r e o f t e n used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y f o r d i v e r s e purposes by r e s e a r c h e r s i n a l l s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s . In t h e s c i e n t i f i c e n t e r p r i s e , however, they a r e n o t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , d e s p i t e arguments t o t h e c o n t r a r y . As a matter o f f a c t , Chemometrlcs, t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s Symposium, may s p r i n g a t l e a s t i n p a r t from t h e r e a l This chapter not subject to U.S. copyright. Published 1985, American Chemical Society
Kurtz; Trace Residue Analysis ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1985.
236
TRACE RESIDUE ANALYSIS
Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on March 26, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: July 15, 1985 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1985-0284.ch013
d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e s e terms. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Chemometrlcs S o c i e t y , f o r i n s t a n c e , d e c l a r e s t h a t : "Chemometrlcs i s t h e c h e m i c a l d i s c i p l i n e t h a t uses mathematical and s t a t i s t i c a l methods (a) t o d e s i g n and s e l e c t o p t i m a l measurement p r o c e d u r e s and e x p e r i m e n t s , and (b) t o p r o v i d e maximum c h e m i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n by a n a l y z i n g c h e m i c a l data."U) The d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e terms a r e not j u s t o f t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t . They touch n e a r l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f our d a i l y l i v e s because they a r e c e n t r a l t o the f u n c t i o n s of the agencies t h a t p r o t e c t the p u b l i c h e a l t h and t h e environment. S p e c i f i c a l l y , t o be c r e d i b l e , t h e s e a g e n c i e s must base t h e i r a c t i o n s on " a c c e p t e d " s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. Consequently, they c o l l e c t enormous amounts o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . These d a t a , however, a r e o f l i t t l e use u n t i l they a r e f i r s t c o n v e r t e d t o s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and then p l a c e d i n the context of other r e l e v a n t s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e r e b y become knowledge. The s t a n d a r d s f o r c o n v e r t i n g d a t a t o i n f o r m a t i o n a r e s h o r t - c u t o r "economy" s o l u t i o n s t o t h e u n i v e r s a l problem o f h a v i n g t o d e c i d e under u n c e r t a i n t y ; t h e s e s t a n d a r d s a r e based on c o n v e n t i o n , not on s c i e n c e . They v a r y from d i s c i p l i n e t o d i s c i p l i n e and from time to t i m e . As might be e x p e c t e d , a l t h o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r development, such s t a n d a r d s a r e o f t e n l i k e l y t o be i n c o m p l e t e o r o t h e r w i s e i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n because they a r e v a l u e - l a d e n r u l e s f o r making c h o i c e s ( v i d e i n f r a ) . Through use, however, they become v a l u a b l e t o t h o s e who use them. O f t e n t h e s e s t a n d a r d s a l s o become a cause o f c o n t e n t i o n when, i n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s e t t i n g s , p r a c t i c a l knowledge must be e x t r a c t e d from e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . Thus, c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f t e n a r i s e when s c i e n t i s t s t r a i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s I n f l u e n c e p u b l i c p o l i c i e s o r make d e c i s i o n s based on t h e c o n v e r s i o n s t a n d a r d s i n which they were t r a i n e d . Here I w i l l examine a t some l e n g t h the problems w i t h one such s t a n d a r d , namely, t h e odds f o r d e c i d i n g " g a t i n g " hypotheses ( v i d e i n f r a ) i n t h e l i f e s c i e n c e r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s . This standard plays a p i v o t a l r o l e i n t h e assessment o r management o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l r i s k s and t h u s i s a t t h e r o o t o f many c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f t h e genre. I w i l l a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s and s i m i l a r problems can be overcome by renewed emphasis on t h e p r o p e r use o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c method o f i n q u i r y and by f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n on M e t r i c s , i . e . , t h e c o n c e p t s , t h e
Kurtz; Trace Residue Analysis ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1985.
Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on March 26, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: July 15, 1985 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1985-0284.ch013
13.
ZERVOS
From Data to Information to Knowledge
237
t h e o r y and t h e p r a c t i c e o f measurement. The f o l l o w i n g e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e problems w i l l i n c l u d e a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c method o f i n q u i r y ; an a n a l y s i s o f i t s value foundations; a d e s c r i p t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e examples o f s u b j e c t i v e c h o i c e s i n s c i e n c e ; an a n a l y s i s o f t h e c l a s h o f v a l u e s d u r i n g Interdisciplinary investigations of societally important t o p i c s ; and a recommendation t o d e v e l o p and expand t h e uses o f M e t r i c s t o overcome t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f making d e c i s i o n s under u n c e r t a i n t y . The
S c i e n t i f i c Method o f I n q u i r y ; An Overview.
D i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e t h e s c i e n t i f i c method o f i n q u i r y d i f f e r e n t l y depending on what they wish t o emphasize
