TRENDS IN CHEMICAL EDUCATION1 ARNOLD 1. CURRIER Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
As TEACHERS of general chemistry, in schools,colleges,
copper(1) oxide, copper(I1) oxide, iron(I1) sulfate and universities, we need to pause once in a while to iron(II1) sulfate. In naming the oxides of nitrogen, consider some of our general problems. Accordingly, to take another example, one uses the terms dinitrogen several topics or problems of rather general interest to monoxide for N10, nitrogen oxide for NO, dinitrogen all chemistry teachers will be discussed briefly under tetroxide for Nz04, etc. The compound K4Fe(CN)6is the title "Trends in chemical ed'ucation." called tetrapotassium hexacvanoferrate, and the compound K&(CN)B is called &ipotassiu& hexacyanoferCHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE rate. To indicate the oxidation numbers (valence) of The general problem of chemical nomenclature de- iron, one could add the numbers I1 and I11 to these serves the attention of the chemistry teacher, who is all names, e. g., for K4Fe(CN)6, tetrapota.ssium hexacyanotoo familiar with the difficulties of the student in this ferrate(I1). matter. Scott2 presented a rather thorough study of With regard to terminology, one still finds in the this problem about ten years ago, a t a symposium on newer textbooks some terms which are incorrectly used, nomenclature sponsored by the Division of Chemical e. g., L'molecular weight" of ionic substances (NaCI, CuSOx5H20, etc.) which do not exist as discrete moleEducation. The revised system of nomenclature prepared by the cules. In such cases, the term "formula weight" apInternational Union of Chemistry3 has met with rather pears to have amore direct application. Another familconservative acceptance by authors of textbooks in iar and time-honored label is "NH40H." A brief regeneral chemistry. Of three new textbooks or re- viewe of work on the ammonia-water system indicates visions of textbooks published this year, only one' that there is little justification for the use of this label. appears to make use of this system. One of the well Many antiquated terms still appear in our chemistry known and widely used introductory texts5 revised textbooks and literature, e. g., blue vitriol, quick lime, in 1950 was, apparently, the k s t t o make use of the burned lime, hard water, soft water, and perhaps many new system. An important feature of this system, it other items which convey either an ambiguous or an will be recalled, is that the oxidation numbers (or va- erroneous chemical meaning to the student. lence numbers) of the positive ions of compounds are expressed by Roman numerals. This scheme is, of ORGANIZATION OF TOPICS course, particularly useful in the case of compounds of Segregation of subject matter into distinct major copper, iron, etc. The old terms cuprous, cupric, categories, e. g., Descriptive Chemistry, Theories ferrous, ferric are replaced by the more specific and, it is and Principles, Chemical Calculations, etc., has been t o be hoped, more workable system of numbers, e. g., done by some authors.'.8.Q.'0 The relative merit of this method of presentation is, 'Presented at the Sixteenth Summer Conference of the NEACT, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., August 19, 1954.
' Scow, J. B., "The need for reform in chemical nomenolature," C h . Revs., 32, 73 (1953). ~ O O R I S SW. E NP., , ET AL., "Rulea for naming inorganic compounds," J. Am. Chem. Soc., 63,889 (1941). ' Rocnow-WILSON,"General Chemistry," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954. "MITH-EHRET,"Introductory College Chemistry," AppletonCentury-Crofts, Inc., New York, 1950.
DAVIS,J. B., "Ammonia and 'ammonium hydroxide,' " J. CHEM.EDUC.,30, 511 (1953). LATIMER AND HILDEBRAND, "Reference Book of Inorganic Chemistry," Maomillan Company, New York, 1951. HILDEBF~ND AND POWELL,"Principles of Chemistry," Macmillan Company, New Yark, 1952. O M C C ~ C H E AND ~ N SELTZ,"General Chemistry," D. Van Nastrand Company. " P m ~ AND s STEINBAC~, 'Systematic College Chemistry," Blakiston, New York, 1952.
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of course, a debatable point. A fundamental fact t o be kept in mind is that, in the development of chemistry as a science, experimental facts, generalizations, and technical applications have come into the picture in a rather closely related sequence or pattern. With reference to the historical development, one is reminded of the problem: I n what order should the periodic system and atomic structure he presented? There are teachers who hold that since the periodic system was worked out many years before we knew anything about the structure of atoms, the periodic system should he presented before atomic structure. Other teachers argue just, as strongly that, because the work on atomic structure is so fundamental, it should be presented first. Perhaps the teacher should let the studknts vote on this question. CARBON CHEMISTRY VERSUS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Without minimizing the importance of the inorganic chemical industries, it is important t o note the very extensive growth of the organic chemical industry. It is estimated" that the organic chemical industry is expanding a t a rate of four times that of all U. S. industry; that "in 20 years more than half the nation's organic chemicals production will be in products unknown today"; that in the next ten years, 100,000 new jobs will be created in the organic chemical field. I t seems probable that many electrical and mechanical engineers will be employed in plants which mauufacture organic chemicals, and that some instruction in organic chemistry will be not only helpful but essential in their work. When only one year's work in general chemistry is included in the curricula in electrical and mechanical engineering as is often the case, it is obvious that the course in general chemistry might well include more work in organic chemistry. Whether or not the organic chemistry is more difficult for freshmen to learn can best be answered by those who teach such courses. Experience in genera1 chemistry at our owniustitution has been hithertolimited tothe usual two weeks on hydrocarbons and carbohydrates. We find that the students express unusual interest in this work and do as well or better than they do on some of the topics in inorganic chemistry. A survey of 'I WAGNER, CAREY,Pres. Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturer'sAssoc., Chem. Eng. News, 32,697 (1954).
several recent texts containing approximately 500 pages and essentially of the "nonmajor" type, shows an increasing coverage of organic chemistry (up to 40 per cent of the total content) (Table 1). I n line with this trend, our course in general chemistry for students in agriculture, engineering, home economics, and physical education a t the Pennsylvania State University has been revised to include more work on organic chemistry. This work replaces the brief and empirical presentation of qualitative analysis (6 weeks) in the second semester. It is recognized, of course, that qualitative analysis has held a timehonored place in the general chemistry course in many institutions. I n our regular one-year course in general chemistry (10 credits) for majors in chemistry, chemical engineering, premedical, and other related curricula, qualitative analysis of the semimicro type is included and will he retained as a part of the second semester's work. For the students in these fields the theory and the techniques of qualitative analysis are generally regarded as having great educational and training valuesas apreparation for scientific work. For the students in general agriculture, engineering, home economics, etc., many of whom take only a brief one-year course in chemistry, it is a debatable point as to whether the work on elementary organic chemistry may not be of more interest and value than the hrief study of "ionic separations" or qualitative analysis. This plan is, of course, an experimental one. It is hoped that the systematic relationships as well as the practical importance of organic chemistry will stimulate the interest and contribute to the intellectual growth of our students. LABORATORY VERSUS TEXTBOOK
One of the difficult problems in the teaching of elementary chemistry is the divided emphasis, or shall we say dual viewpoint in connection with the use of a textbook and a laboratory manual. Every teacher of general chemistry probably will concede that the most direct learning of chemistry comes, or should come, from the laboratory experience of the student. I n our teaching, however, we tend to place more emphasis on the textbook material. I n all too many cases, the student gets the impression that the experimental work is largely a matter of illustration or confirmation of the material
TABLE 1 Comparison of Textbook. in General Chemistry (Relative Emphasis on Carbon Chemistry) Total Pages on % . . of tezt carbon pages mrbon>hemistry Ehemislry Author Ti& Damerell Watt and Hatch Garrett, Haskins, and Sislcr Richardson and Scarlett Briseoe King and Caldwell Srnith-Ehret Cavelti
"A Course in College Chemistry"
.
"Science of Chemistry" "Essentisls of Chemistry" "Brief College Chemistry" "College Chemistry" "College Chemistry" "Introductory College Chemistry" "Introduotory General Chemistry"
531 538 525 353 548 568 500 408
216 188 147 45 68 59 48 38
40.6 35.0 31.0 12.7 12.4 10.4 9.6 9.3
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JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION TABLE 2 The Master of Education D e m e Conferred at P.S.U. in Science and Other Fields 15-Yr. Period . - - -1949-531 ---.-. ~
1949 1950 1951 1952 1953
a
Total degrees conferred
Chemistly and
200 281 330 342 301 1454
0 0 1 4 2 7 0.5%
phys. sci.
Biological sciences 2 4 5 7 3
Education 113 270 206 215 210 1014
85 7 118 116 86 412
-
z-
--.
All other fieldsa
-
1.4%
All other fields: agr. ed., art ed., business ed., home ec. ed., ind. ed., music ed., phys. ed., speech ed., languages, social studies. -~
presented in the textbook. To a certain degree this graduates prepared to teach mathematics, general aspect of the laboratory work may be a desirable one, science, biology, chemistry, and physics for the years but the thoughtful and perhaps less ambitious student 194933 show an increase from 1949 to 1950 and a very can rightfully say, "What's the use of doing the ex- alarming decrease from 1950 to 1953. Some factors perimentalwork when we know the answers because they responsible for the current shortage of science teachers are all in the book?" Some of the laboratory manuals are: higher salaries offered in technical fields, military of the workbook type which include certain exercises drafts and enlistments, and shifting of science teachers involving only the tabulation of facts or data from the to administrative positions. Anticipating future needs textbook, may be especially conducive to this point of in terms of increasing school population, the conview. ference report makes the following statement:'= "AlTo correct this undesirable tendency or practice, some ready the need for new science teachers . . . exceeds writers have prepared texts which make the individual 7000 per year and will approach 10,000 per year in the experimental work the focal point of the ~ o u r s e . ' ~ J ~ immediate future. Since the total annual pool of poThe first-named publication presents the basic con- tential science teachers is now about 5000, a serious cepts es an integral part of the laboratory work. The shortage seems inevitable unless drastic actions are student is expected t o find related descriptive material taken a t once." in the larger texts which are made available for refTo implement this action, the conference report makes erence in the laboratory. The writer, unfortunately, seven recommendations, two of which are stated as has had no experience with this type of teaching and follows: "4. Liberal-arts and teachers colleges conwould like to be in position t o try it. Another phase cerned about the quality of instruction in secondary of this problem, and closely related toit, is the question: schools immediately begin, in cooperation with proShould the laboratory work precede or follow the lec- fessional scientific societies and associations, vigorous ture and recitation work? A plan which the writer recruitment campaigns for secondary-school teacher follows (in college general chemistry) involves the se- candidates especially in science and mathematics"; quence; (1) lecture, (2) laboratory, (3) recitation. The "6. School administrators concentrate responsibility for ideal situation would be to have a flexible schedule, so science teaching among a minimum number of qualified that a given topic or unit may be studied in whatever teachers." way seems most effective, i. e., by formal lecture demOf the increasing number of secondary-school teachers onstration, individual experimental work, or class earning master's degrees, it is of interest to know what discussion-with all of these activities in charge of the proportion do their graduate work in chemistry and other sciences. Data from the records of one state unisame teacher. I n a t least one textbook in qualitative a n a l y ~ i s ' ~versity for the five-year period from 1949 t o 1953 are the authors have attempted t o correlate the lectures summarized in Tables 2 and 3. It is to be noted that of with the laboratory work on certain topics. the 1454 individuals who took the M.Ed. degree, only 28 or about two per cent did their major work in the SCIENCE TEACHERS sciences (only seven in chemistry). The trend in the supply of science teachers deserves Assuming that many of the 1014 students whose careful study. The curve^'^ showing the numbers of major work was in education are currently in administrative work or will eventually enter this field, it appears 12 STONEAND MCCULLOUGA, "Experiments, Theory, and that their science background is not sufficient as a basis Problems in General Chemistry," McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1953. for sound judgment in administering science courses. '8 GORDON, "College Chemistry," World Book Co., 1926. The degree of Master of Science (MS.) was conferred '1 FAI,ESAND KENNY, "Inorganic Qualitative Analysis: Semiupon 1156 individuals a t the same institution (Table 3). Mino Techniques with Estimation of Concentration,93 AppletonDuring the same five-year period, 111 or 9.6 per cent of Century-Crafts, Inc., New York, 1953. l6 "Critical Years Ahead in Science Teaching," Report of Conthese individuals did their major work in chemistry, ference on Nation-wide Problems of Science Teaching in the 74 or 6.4 per centin physics, and 122 or 10.5 per cent
Secondary Schools, Harvard University, July-August, 1953, p. 12.
Ibid., p. 19.
MAY, 1955
in biochemistry or biological sciences. I n round numbers, about 25 per cent majored in the physical and biological sciences and 75 per cent majored in the various applied or technical fields, e. g., agriculture, engineering, home economics, mineral indhstries, etc. Presumably very few, if any, of the 25 per cent who majored in the physical and biological sciences did enough work in the field of education to legally qualify them as teachers of science in the public schools. Again, this "M.S. group" cannot be regarded as a potential group of science teachers even though they are well qualified as to their training in the sciences. Some of the factors which have brought about this discouraging sitnation are, of course, well known: relat,ively lower salaries paid to scienre teachers, as compared to salaries paid to principals and superint,endent,s,insufficient credits in undergraduate science courses. as ~rereauisitesfor the graduate courses in
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In the liberal-arts colleges, the situation is presumably not as discouraging as in the case of the larger technical institutions. The writer is of the opinion that a considerable number of students, especially women, are being well trained as science teachers in the arts colleges and in some of the state teacher's colleges. TABLE 3 The Mantv of Science Degree Conferred at P.S.U. in Science and Other Fields (5-vr. Period 1949-53)
Total degrees conferred 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953
235 234 253 240 194 1156
-
Chemistry
30 25 25 19 12 111
Physics
11 li 22 9 15 74
Biochem. and bid.
All other
sez.
fields"
18 30 27 30 17 122
176 162 179 182 150 849
