W. H. Slsbaugh
Trends in instruction of Chemistry
Oregon State College
Corvollis
by Films and Television
Enrmds NOTE: This paper summarizes the day-long Symposium on Trends in Instruction in Chemistry by Films and Television presented by the Division of Chemical Education at the 135th Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Boston, Mass., April, 1959. At the Editor's request Dr. Slabangh prepared the manuscript in collaboration with others of the contributors to the Symposium. W. H. Slabaugh, Oregon State College, Cowallis J. F. Baxter, University of Florida, Gainesville W. J. Blade1 and R. J. Stanley, University of Wisconsin, Madison H. Eyring, University of Utah, Salt Lake City J. M. Houig, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana T. Sumner, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio E. C. Weaver, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts Readers interested in details of procedure or further information are urged to communicate with the coauthors. Readers also should consult indexes of THIS JOWNAL for esrlier reports of similar activity, notably the paper by S ~ EG., W., 33, 257 (1956).
In view of the concurrent problems of increasing enrollments, inadequate teaching staffs, building space needs, and above all, the desire to improve the techniques and efficiency of teaching, a notable revival of interest in films and an expandmg interest in television as media of instruction of chemistry a t all levels is evident. Films have long been recognized as potentially effective devices for instructional purposes, but they have traditionally been relegated to a secondary position in chemical education because there has been a dearth of films suitable for other than supplementary effects. Recently, however, thanks to increasing knowledge of the factors that determine the effectiveness of film instruction1 as well as the underwriting of a share of the costs by groups basically interested in the matter, there have been several noteworthy films designed especially for chemical education. At first, television was viewed primarily as a tool for entertainment and commercial exploitation. Here again, however, in spite of the high costs involved, the educational potential of this medium is being examined by means of subsidies and spurred by the realization that the teaching of larger enrollments may thus be effectively and efficiently achieved. Not only are parts of courses being taught by television, but efforts to teach complete chemistry courses are under way. A variety of approaches to the use of films and television in the instruction of chemistry have been made, and several of these approaches are discussed in this r6sum6. Films on Special Topics
A survey of the availability of films and filmstrips suitable for su~dementaltrainine in chemistrv reveals 'Instruction Film Researoh Reports, No. SDC 269-7-36, U. S. Navy.
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a notable lack of films specifically designed for this purpose. The majority of films used in chemistry contribute only slightly to chemical education, and in some cases serious errors are evident. Furthermore, these films are usually made for multi-purpose use; consequently the technical information required for chemical education is omitted. Several sets of films especially designed for classroom use in the instruction of chemistry are presently available and should command the attention of chemical educators interested in supplementing their regular classroom work with well-designed visual aids in the form of color motion pictures. The first set of films deals with special topics suitable for presentation to both high school and general college chemistry levels. Films already available include "Combustion," and "Chlorine--a Representative Halogen." Two additional films will be available during the current year entitled "Water," and "OxidationReduction." These are part of a continuing program sponsored by the Manufacturing Chemists' Association which underwrites the cost of producing the films. The content is first selected and organized by both industrial and teaching chemists; then storyboards are made, reviewed, and revised by experts skilled in chemistry instruction, audio-visual work, administration, and curriculum. The films are reviewed and edited a t critical stages during their production in order that they may be free of error and most effective from the pedagogical standpoint. The principal features of these films include the lack of distracting backgrounds, the absence of musical background, and the notable lack of advertising or promotional objectives. Each of these films runs about fifteen minutes, and they are distributed by Classroom Film Distributors, Inc., 201 North Occidental Boulevard, Los Angeles 26, California, a t a cost of $130
each. Each film is accompanied by a teacher's guide which provides equations for all the reactions depicted in the film and supplies helps in the form of questions about the film which the teacher may adapt for his individual classroom situation. The second set of films, titled "Molecular Vibrations" and "Reaction Kinetics," is designed to bring these more advanced topics down to the level of courses in general chemistry and physical chemistry. The theory of absolute reaction rates and the notion of an activated complex are depicted in the form of animated diagrams with the object of reducing the basic concepts to a non-mathematical level. The subjecbmatter content has been designed and developed by experts in the field, even to the extent of calculating the number of frames required to produce a particular sequence of animation. These films are also available from Classroom Film Distributors, Inc. Instruction of Port of the Laboratory Course
At the University of Wisconsin, the instruction of certain aspects of quantitative analysis has been undertaken by means of films produced by kinescope, with the object of demonstrating for the student the use of the balance and elementary gravimetric and volumetric techniques. With this procedure, a good demonstration recorded on film may be shown over and over again without the timeconsuming task of preparing and rehearsing the demonstration each time. The film also eliminates the waiting periods and time lapses encountered in digestion, decantation, filtration, and ignition. The correct outcome of a film demonstration is always assured by proper editing. The use of three forty-five minute films on basic techniques of quantitative analysis is now considered a necessary part of the instructional procedure a t the University of Wisconsin. The production of kinescope films is considerably more economical than the production of motion pictures with an optical camera. The economy arises from special shooting techniques and also from the fact that the kinescope method permits direct monitoring on television a t the time that the action is being filmed. The effort of shooting, editing, and retakmg is reduced to the point that a kinescope can be produced a t one-half to onefourth the cost of a comparable conventional motion picture. The kine scope film records a lower quality image than the optical camera, although the quality is adequate for instructional purposes. These three kinescopes will shortly be available from the University of Wisconsin Television Laboratory a t about $100 each. During the past three years a t Purdue University, a study of audio-visual aids in connection with the laboratory course in general chemistry has been made in order to find how such devices may be used effectively. I n the experiment, students in general chemistry viewed live telecasts and watched homemade films displayed by television, by slides, and by taped narration, in addition to reading detailed instructions provided in a laboratory manual. The live telecasts dealt with laboratory procedures and stressed safety precautions while the films showed manipulative techniques a t close range. The actual chemical experiments themselves were not demonstrated in any
way. Each student was expected to work out the experiment on his own. Films dealing with the triplebeam balance, volumetric measurements, graphic representation of data, electro-chemistry, and elements of glass manipulation were prepared especially for this project. Comparing students in a control group to those who had access to the information derived from the audio-visual aids, the two groups performed almost identically on written laboratory examinations and on laboratory work involving unknowns. Student reactions were initially favorable, followed by a slight decline in interest throughout the semester until a slightly negative attitude prevailed. This change in attitude was attributed to the realization that viewing the audio-visual aids reduced the amount of available laboratory time in which the experiment could be performed. Most students, however, were in favor of continuing the use of these audio-visual aids in connection with their laboratory work. Ultimately, the entire class in general chemistry for engineering students was included in the pilot program. From the standpoint of economy, it was possible to operate a laboratory of seventy students with only one graduate assistant instead of the usual three. There was evidence of qualitative improvement in teaching because instruction was more uniform than under the conventional arrangement. Not only did students have a better opportunity to view the operational details a t close range, but they received them a t the hand of an experienced instructor who usually provided a better and clearer presentation of the material than did the graduate assistants. The lack of color, lack of third dimension, and the lack of opportunity to ask questions presented disadvantages. Also, the regular staff felt unduly burdened with the administrative details related to the use of audiovisual devices. The chief advantages of the audiovisual aids in the laboratory session include the economy in personnel and improvement in instruction. Replacement of the Convenlional Laboratory by Film
A two-year study a t the University of Akron dealt with the instruction of the entire general chemistry laboratory by means of color films. Films were prepared which show conventional experiments performed by the instructor. These were then shown to the students in place of the students' performing the experiments themselves. The material on these films, which average about 25 minutes in duration, provides the student with the data and information necessary to fulfill the laboratory report in the usual sense. The students were required to see the films twice in rapid succession. During the second showing, notetakmg was encouraged. During the first part of the experiment, which involved students in the second semester of a year course, the effectiveness of the filmed laboratory session was gauged by comparing the performance of students who viewed the films to a control group of students who performed the experiments-in the conventional fashion. The group seeing the films scored slightly better on conventional tests than did students exposed to the actual laboratory experiences. The favorable results encouraged the extension of the Volume 36, Number 12, December 1959
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project to a full year's course, for which t h i i y films were produced. I n the full-year course, the students obtaining their laboratory experience vicariously by means of the films again earned better grades than the students who performed conventional experiments. The instructors participating in this project feel that where the acquisition of technique is not a major objective, the film may replace the conventional laboratory experience. The University of Akron films are available from Coronet Films in both color and black and white. The cost of each depends on the length of the film in question. A Complete Course in High School Chemistry on Film
A series of films embodying a complete course in high school chemistry has been produced a t the University of Florida in the form of 160 thirty-minute films, about 135 of which should be used in sequence. The other 25 are such that they may be omitted or shown out of sequence, thus lending more flexibility to the course. In these films, every effort has been made to produce a high-quality finished product involving ample demonstrations, up-dating the material to strictly modern levels, with emphasis on chemical principles. The objective was a presentation of chemistry which should qualify a student for entrance into the college course. These films may be used as a complete course in themselves with the instructional manuals provided for them, or they may he used as a supplementary teaching device to bring to the student an elaborate array of effective lecture demonstrations which otherwise would be unavailable to the typical high school student. Although the best use of the films would seem to be in direct classroom projection, they may also be used on television. The production of these films required almost a year and a half of the time of a group consisting of several high school and college instructors and a technical production crew. This is indeed considered to be a monumental contribution to the field of chemical education. These films are available from Encyclopedia Britannica Films a t
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$27,000 per set in color and $14,000 in black and white. A College Chemistry Course via Television
I n a project a t Oregon State College concerning the use of television for the two lectures in general chemistry, the results of the first year's study were successful enough to warrant the expansion of the experiment to include the complete course. Because of certain inherent limitations in the television method, the laboratory and recitation phases of general chemistry were not aimed toward the same objectives as in the conventional setup. For example, very little emphasis can he given to developing "first hand" techniques. However, this study shows that the students perform equally well on conventional testing devices compared to those who take the course by conventional methods; in addition, it shows that the students are forced to depend more on themselves, thus developing an attitude of independence toward the studv of the material itself. I n this experiment, the course is originated in one institution, then hroadcasted to regularly enrolled students a t four different college campuses. Results show that it is economically and engineeringly feasible to conduct a course on this basis; that it is acceptable to the majority of the students taking the course; that it is effectiveinsofar as standardized measurements of student achievement can determine; and that it is beginning to be viewed as a potentially acceptable means of instruction, not only by those instructors participating in the experiment but also by instructors closely associated with the areas concerned. A kinescope recording of the course as it is being produced permits an exact repetition of the course. The objective of this phase of the experiment is to ascertain the practicality of teaching the entire course by film. The effectiveness of this type of instruction will be examined by observing the performance of these students in subsequent advanced laboratory courses. Since only one copy of the kinescope film is being made for this project, copies of this filmed course are not available for distribution.
