Turfgrass Benefits and the Golf Environment - ACS Symposium Series

Chapter 2

Turfgrass Benefits and the Golf Environment 1

J . B. Beard

Downloaded by FUDAN UNIV on February 16, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: December 29, 1999 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2000-0743.ch002

International Sports Turf Institute, College Station, T X 77840

There is a need to recognize and quantify the beneficial contributions of turfgrasses when properly maintained as part of a positive golf course environment. Specific functional benefits include: excellent soil erosion control and dust stabilization; enhanced runoff water entrapment and soil water infiltration; improved biodegradation of organic compounds; soil improvement and restoration of disturbed lands; substantial urban heat dissipation; reduced noise and glare; decreased noxious pests, allergy-related pollens, and human diseases; and a favorable wildlife habitat. The recreational-health benefits include enhanced physical health of participants and a unique low-cost cushion against personal injuries; plus improved mental health with a positive therapeutic impact and an overall better quality-of-life, especially in densely populated urban areas. This paper updates a 1992 publication concerning our current state of knowledge as to the benefits of golf course turfs as documented by scientific data.

An 18-hole golf course facility in the United States typically is comprised of (a) 0.8 to 1.2 ha of putting green area, (b) 0.6 to 1.2 ha of teeing area, and (c) 10 to 20 ha of fairway area (Table I). In other words, only 20 to 30% of the area on a golf course is used and maintained to specific criteria as part of the playing requirements of the game. Except for the various types of physical structures that may be constructed on site, a majority of the golf course property is devoted to a low maintenance, natural landscape. A properly planned and maintained golf course facility offers a diversity of functional benefits to the overall community, in addition to the physical and mental health benefits provided from the game itself. These benefits are significant when compared to alternate uses such as industry, business, and residential housing,

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Current address: ISTI, 1812 Shadowood Drive, College Station, T X 77840.

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© 2000 American Chemical Society

Clark and Kenna; Fate and Management of Turfgrass Chemicals ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1999.

37 especially in the case of urban areas where a majority of the golf courses are located. In addition, greater benefits are derived from golf course facilities when compared to agricultural production operations in rural areas.

Table I. Comparative turf use by area for a representative 18-hole golf course. Type of use

Percent ofArea

52.65

72.2

Fairways

16.2

22.2

Buildings/parking lots

2.11

2.9

Putting greens

1.01

1.4

Tees

0.93

1.3

Total

72.9

100.0

Rough/water/woodland Downloaded by FUDAN UNIV on February 16, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: December 29, 1999 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2000-0743.ch002

Area (ha)

Turfgrasses have been used by humans to enhance their environment for over ten centuries. The complexity and comprehensiveness of the environmental benefits that improve our quality-of-life are just now being quantitatively documented through research. Benefits from golf course turfs may be divided into (a) functional and (b) recreational-health components. Functional Benefits Soil Erosion Control A n d Dust Stabilization - Vital Soil Resource Protection. Turfgrasses serve as an inexpensive, durable ground cover that protects our valuable, non-renewable soil resources. Properly maintained turfgrass stands are not a significant source of sediment entering bodies of water. It is generally recognized that a few large storms each year are responsible for most soil erosion losses. Dense, highcut turfgrass stands modify the overland flow process such that runoff is insignificant in all but the most intense rainfall events. The erosion control effectiveness of turfgrass is the combined result of a high shoot density and root mass for soil surface stabilization, plus a high canopy biomass matrix that provides resistance to lateral surface water flow, thus slowing potentially erosive water velocities. A key characteristic of mowed turfgrasses that contributes to very effective erosion control is a dense, low-growing ground cover, with a high shoot density ranging from 75 million to more than 20 billion shoots ha' . Regular mowing, as practiced in turf culture, increases the shoot density substantially because of enhanced tillering when compared to natural grasslands (2). Therefore, perennial turfgrasses offer one of the most cost-efficient methods to control wind and water 1


38 erosion of soil. Such control is very important in eliminating dust and mud problems. When this major erosion control benefit is combined with the ground water recharge and organic chemical decomposition discussed in the next two sections, the resultant relatively stable turfgrass ecosystem is quite effective in both soil and water conservation and quality protection. Enhanced Surface Water Capture and Ground Water Recharge. A key mechanism by which turfgrasses conserve water is their superior capability to essentially trap and hold potential water runoff. This facilitates more water infiltrating and filtering downward through the soil-turfgrass ecosystem. A mowed turfgrass possesses a leaf and stem biomass ranging from 1,000 to 30,000 kg ha" , depending on the grass species, season, and cultural regime. This biomass is composed of a matrix of relatively fine-textured stems and narrow leaves with numerous, random open spaces. The matrix is of a porous nature which enhances surface water retention and subsequent water infiltration. The reduced runoff volume, due to a turfgrass cover, can decrease the costly storm-water structures and management requirements for urban development. Turfgrass ecosystems often support abundant populations of earthworms (Lumbricidae) ranging from 200 to 300 earthworms m~ . Earthworm activity increases the amount of macropore space within the soil, which results in higher soil water infiltration rates and water-retention capacity (13). Numerous studies have shown the ability of a turfgrass cover to reduce runoff water and enhance soil water infiltration, thereby furthering ground water recharge.


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2

Surface Water Protection. The excellent ability of high density, low-growing turfgrasses to capture surface water and the dense root biomass provide a superior ability to control the loosening and overland movement of soil particles in surface water which may eventually enter streams, ponds, and lakes. These soil particles are typically silts and clays, with the clays tending to have phosphates attached. The phosphates contribute significantly to the eutrophication of ponds and lakes. Thus, high cut turfgrass covers contribute substantially in protecting the quality of surface waters. Improved Soil Biodégradation Of Organic Chemicals. A diverse, large population of soil microflora and microfauna are supported by the decomposition of turfgrass roots and rhizomes. These same organisms offer one of the most active biological systems for the degradation of organic chemicals and pesticides trapped by the turf. Thus, this turf ecosystem is important in the protection of ground water quality. The runoff water and sediment that occurs from impervious surfaces in urban areas carries many pollutants: including metals such as lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc; hydrocarbon compounds from oil, grease and fuels; and household/industrial hazardous wastes such as waste oils, paint thinners, organic preservatives, and solvents. Turfgrass areas can be designed for the catchment and filtration of these polluted runoff waters. It is significant that large populations of diverse soil microflora and microfauna are supported by this same soil-tiufgrass ecosystem. Microflora constitute the largest


39 proportion of the decomposer biomass of most soils. The bacterial biomass component ranges from 30 to 300 g m' , and for fungi from 50 to 500 g m" , with actinomycetes probably in a similar range (12). The soil invertebrate decomposer biomass ranges from 1 to 200 g m" , with higher values occurring in soils dominated by earthworms. The earthworm component is especially active in the soil incorporation and decomposition of the turf thatch and clippings, which contributes to the soil organic matter level. The bacterial population in the moist litter, grass clippings, and thatch of a turf commonly is in the order of 10 organisms cm" of litter surface. These organisms offer one of the most active biological systems for the degradation of trapped organic chemicals and pesticides. The average microbial biomass pool is reported to be 700, 850, and 1,090 kg of carbon ha" for arable, forest, and grassland systems, respectively. A microbial biomass of 1,200 kg C ha" has been reported for grasslands in the United States (15). Microbial biomass values of mowed turfgrasses are not yet available, but are probably even higher due to the high carbon biomass contained in the senescent leaves and grass clippings that accumulate near the soil surface and to a more favorable soil moisture regime due to irrigation. The turfgrass ecosystem also supports a diverse community of non-pest invertebrates. For example, a Poa pratensis - Festuca rubra polystand in New Jersey supported 83 different taxa of invertebrates including insects, mites, nematodes, annelids, gastropods, and other groups. Similarly, dozens of species of Staphylinidae (rove beetles), Carabidae (ground beetles), Formicidae (ants), Araneae (spiders), and other groups of invertebrates have been recovered from turfgrass sites (13) Finally, there also is the gaseous dimension of atmospheric pollution control. Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations greater than 50 μΐ often occur in urban environments, especially near roadsides. Turfgrasses, such as Festuca arundinacea, have been shown to be useful as an absorber of CO from the urban environment. 2

2

2

9

2


1

1

Ground Water Protection. Turfgrasses are characterized by a combination of enhanced surface water capture including associated pollutants, soil water infiltration, and enhanced decomposition of organic compounds including pesticides. These attributes result in turfgrasses serving a vital role in ground water protection. Soil Improvement And Restoration. An extremely important function of turfgrasses is soil improvement through organic matter additions derived from the decomposition of roots and other plant tissues that are synthesized in part from atmospheric carbon dioxide via photosynthesis (Table II). A high proportion of the world's most fertile soils has been developed under a vegetative cover of grass (8). The root depth potential of turfgrasses ranges from 0.5 to 3 m, depending on the species, extent of defoliation, and soil/environmental conditions. Generally, C warm-season turfgrasses produce a deeper, more extensive root system than the C cool-season species (2). More work has been reported on the rooting characteristics of Poa pratensis turf than any other grass species. Its root system biomass is in the range of 11,000 to 16,100 kg ha" , with approximately 122,000 roots and 6.1 χ 10 root hairs per liter in the upper 150 mm of soil, plus a combined length of over 74 km and a surface area of about 2.6 m . 4

3

1

7

2


40 1

Table Π. The 9-year contribution of a Cynodon sod production operation , involving two sod harvests annually, on the underlying soil organic matter content. Year


1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1992 1993

Organic Matter Content (%) 0.50 0.98 0.70 1.20 1.60 2.46 2.80

!

Sod production was initiated in 1985 by C.C.Willis of Western Sod near Casa Grande, Arizona on a clay loam soil. The land had previously been in a two-crop per year rotation of cotton and wheat. The annual root system turnover rate has been estimated at 42% for a turf. Using Falk's estimate, 6,761 kg of root biomass per hectare would be turned over into the soil each year. This estimate is low because it did not account for root secretions, death and decay offineroots and root hairs, and consumption of roots by soil insects and animals. The amount of root biomass annually produced and turned over into the soil, or root net productivity, for a defoliated grassland is higher than the amount reported for ungrazed prairie ecosystem. Similarly, the net effect of regular mowing on prostrate growing turfgrasses would be to concentrate energies into increased vegetative growth, as opposed to reproductive processes, and to form a canopy of numerous dense, short, rapid growing plants with a fibrous root system. Also, many prairie lands in the United States show decreased productivity under regular defoliation, as by mowing, since most native grass species found in these ecosystems form meristematic crowns that are elevated higher above the soil where removal is more likely when compared to turfgrass species. Land Restoration. The turfgrass benefits of enhanced soil erosion control, surface water capture, biodégradation of organic chemicals, and soil improvement via organic matter additions from an extensive grass root biomass jointly provide a favorable environment for land restoration. Accelerated soil restoration of environmentally damaged areas by planting perennial grasses is employed effectively on highly eroded rural landscapes, burned-over lands, garbage dumps, mining operations, and timber harvest areas. Some of these previously unwanted areas may then be developed as functional golf courses, recreational, and wildlife areas. Enhanced Heat Dissipation - Temperature Moderation. Turfgrasses dissipate high levels of radiant heat in urban areas through the cooling process of transpiration. The overall temperature of urban areas may be as much as 5 to 7°C warmer than that of


41 nearby rural areas. Maximum daily canopy temperatures of a green Cynodon turf was found to be 21 °C cooler than a brown dormant turf and 39°C cooler than a synthetic surface (Table ΙΠ). The transpirational cooling effect of green turfs and landscapes can save energy by reductions in the energy input required for interior mechanically cooling of adjacent homes and buildings. Table III. Comparative temperatures of four surfaces assessed in August in College Station, Texas (9).


Type of Surface

Maximum TemperaturePercent Temperature Increase Compared to a Green Turf

Green growing turf

31.1

—

Dry, bare soil

38.9

16

Brown, dormant turf

52.2

43

Synthetic turf

70.0

80

Noise Abatement and Glare Reduction. The surface characteristics of turfgrasses function in significant noise abatement of from 20 to 40%, as well as in multi directional light reflection that reduces glare. Both result in less stress to humans. Studies have shown that turfgrass surfaces absorb harsh sounds significantly better than hard surfaces such as pavement, gravel, or bare ground. These benefits are maximized by an integrated landscape of turfgrasses, trees, and shrubs. Unfortunately, the proper use of turfgrasses, trees, and shrubs in concert to maximize noise abatement has received little attention within the scientific community.

Decreased Noxious Pests, Allergy-Related Pollens, A n d Human Diseases. Noxious Pests. Closely mowed turfs reduce the numbers of nuisance pests such as snakes (Serpentes suborder), rodents (Rodentia order), mosquitoes (Culicidae family), scorpions (Scorpionida order), ticks (Ixodoidea superfamily), and chiggers (Trombiculidae family) due to a less favorable habitat (13), Allergies. Allergy-related pollens can cause human discomfort and potentially serious health concerns to susceptible individuals. Dense turfs typically are void of the many weedy species that often produce allergy-related pollens. In addition, most turfgrasses that are mowed regularly at a low height tend to remain vegetative with minimal floral development (2) and thus have reduced pollen production. 9

Human Diseases. Exposure to a number of serious human diseases is


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facilitated by key insect vectors, such as mosquitos and ticks. Of current concern is Lyme disease, which is spread by a tick commonly found in unmowed tall grass and woodland-shrub habitats. A closely mowed turf offers a less favorable habitat for unwanted nuisance insects and disease vectors Provides A Favorable Wildlife Habitat More than 70% of the golf course allocated to rough and non-play area encompasses turfgrasses, trees, and water in the primary rough and turfgrasses, flowers, shrubs, trees, and water in the secondary rough and perimeter areas. A diverse animal and plant wildlife population can be achieved by an integrated golf course landscape. A study of golf courses and parks in Cincinnati, Ohio has shown that passerine birds benefit from golf courses, when compared to adjacent urban and agricultural land uses, even to the extent that golf courses may be described as bird sanctuaries. A comparison of bird communities on a golf course and on a natural area both in Kansas revealed a higher density of birds on the golf course, a comparable number of bird species, and species characterizations that varied (16). Ponds, lakes, and wetlands are very desirable features as used in golf courses because they create aquatic habitats, as well as diversity in visual landscape aesthetics. Properly designed urban landscape "green" areas such as golf courses can maintain and even promote plant and animal diversity, natural habitats, and wetlands, especially when compared to intensive agriculture and urban residential usage. Thus, golf courses are important naturalized open spaces, especially in areas of urban development. Substantial Contribution To The National Economy. From a monetary standpoint, the golf industry contributes in excess of US $18 billion annually to the United States economy.

Recreational Health Benefits Enhanced Physical Health Of Golf Participants. The enjoyment and benefits of improved physical/mental health derived from golfing activities on turfgrasses are vital to a contemporary, fast-paced industrialized society, especially in densely populated urban areas. There are more than 16,000 golf courses in the United States offering 24.7 million golfers more than 2.4 billion hours of healthy, outdoor recreation. Playing golf involves the expenditure of energy that is reflected in weight loss (14). The caloric cost of golf play has been reported to be 3.7 kcal min" (7). Research has shown that walking an 18-hole golf course 3 times per week resulted in a lowered total cholesterol (TC) level, a lowered low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level, and an improved risk ratio of L D L - C to TC (11). The relative hardness of a surface affects the likelihood that foot, knee, and back injuries will occur to those walking or running of the respective surfaces. The turfed surfaces of golf courses have a relatively soft cushioning characteristic (Table IV). 1


Table IV. Comparisons of the hardness of nine representative surfaces in the College Station, Texas area, expressed as means of multiple observations of Clegg Impact Value (CIV) using the fourth 300-mm drop reading (13).


Representative Types of Recreational/Sport Surfaces

Clegg Impact Value (g) (2.25-kg hammer)

Cement floor Asphalt road Tennis court-outdoor composition Running track-outdoor composition Basketball court-permanent wood

1426 1442 1422 1432 640

Baseball infield-bare clay Football field-outdoor, 4-year old artificial surface Football field-indoor, 1-year old artificial surface

504 175 141

Baseball field-natural turf of irrigated Cynodon

100

Positive Therapeutic Impact Most city dwellers attach considerable importance to urban green areas, with views of grass, trees, and open space. Cities can be very dismal without green turfgrasses, with the result being a loss of human productivity, and more susceptibility to anxieties and mental disease. When the visual content response of a golf course landscape was compared to a structured urban and a forest setting, the former lowered the average blood pressure level and the skin conductance level, with both returning to baseline levels more rapidly and the viewer subsequently performing mental arithmetic tasks more rapidly (12). There is an increased sense of residential neighborhood satisfaction and of general well-being when there was a nearby nature landscape, such as parks, golf courses, woodland areas, and large landscape sites Turfgrasses provide beauty and attractiveness that enhance the quality-of-life for human activities. The clean, cool, natural green of turfgrasses provides a pleasant, serene environment in which to live, work, and play. Such aesthetic values are of increasing importance to the human spirit of citizens because of rapid-paced lifestyles and increasing urbanization.

Acknowledgments This paper represents an update of an original paper coauthored with R.L. Green in the Journal of Environmental Quality in 1994 (6). For citations of the research documenting the non-referenced statements presented herein, please refer to the original 1994 paper. This series of review papers was partially supported by a grant from the United States Golf Association.


44 Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4.


5.

6.

7. 8. 9

10. 11.

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13. 14.

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16.

Alexander, M. Introduction to Soil Microbiology, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York, N.Y. 1977. Beard, J.B. Turfgrass: Science and Culture. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, Ν.J. 1973. 658 pp. Beard, J.B. Turf Management for Golf Courses. Macmillan Company, New York, Ν.Y. 1982. 642 pp. Beard, J.B. The role of Gramineae in enhancing man's quality of life. Symp. Proc. Nat. Comm. Agric. Sci., Japanese Sci. Council. 1989. pp 1-9. Beard, J.B. Environmental protection and beneficial contributions of golf course turfs. Science and Golf II: Proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. A.J. Cochran and M.R. Farrally, Ed. Ε & F N Spon, London, England. 1994. pp 399-408. Beard, J. Β and R.L. Green. The role of turfgrasses in environmental protection and their benefits to humans. J. Environmental Quality. 1994. Vol. 23, no. 3. pp 452-460. Gretchell, L . H . Energy cost of playing golf. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab. 1968. Vol. 49, pp 31-35. Gould, F.W. Grass Systematics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y. 1968. 382 pp. Johns, D., and J.B Beard. A quantitative assessment of the benefits from irrigated turf on environmental cooling and energy savings in urban areas. In Texas Turfgrass Research--1985. Texas Agric. Exp. Stn. PR-4330. 1985. pp 134-142. Kaplan, R. and S. Kaplan. The Experience of Nature. Cambridge University Press, New York, N.Y. 1989. Palank, Ε.A. and E.H. Hargreaves, Jr. The benefits of walking the golf course Effects on lipoprotein levels and risk ratios. The Physician and Sports Medicine. 1990. Vol. 18, no. 10, pp 77-80. Parsons, R., L . G . Tassinary, R.S. Ulrich, M.R. Hebl, and M . BrossmanAlexander. The viewfromthe road: Implications for stress recovery and immunization. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 1998. Vol. 17, no. 3. Potter, D.A. Destructive Turfgrass Insects: Biology, Diagnosis, and Control. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, M I . 344 pp. S.I. Sifers and J.B Beard. Enhancing participant safety in natural turfgrass surfaces including use of interlocking mesh element matrices. In Safety in American Football, E.F. Hoerner, Ed. Am. Soc. for Testing and Materials, STP 1305. 1996. pp 156-163. Smith, J.L., and E . A . Paul. The significance of soil microbial biomass estimations. In Soil Biochemistry. J.M. Bollag and G. Stotzky, Ed. Vol. 6. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, N.Y. 1990. pp 357-396. Terman, M . R . Natural links: naturalistic golf courses as wildlife habitat. Landscape and Urban Planning. 1997. Vol. 38, pp 183-197.


Turfgrass Benefits and the Golf Environment - ACS Symposium Series

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