1
TTi
Closed-circuit units are industry's boon if and education's d i ^ i lemma now,, but; this© is,onlwthe beginningj
l^^^^r^^c^y^A|_„
TV for an Audience of One—or More A ELEVISION'S ELECTRONIC MIRACLE is
finding scores of applications in plants, labs, classrooms, meetings—technical, sales, and stockholder, and the like. And this is only the beginning. As evidence of the growth of these applications, sales of industrial or closed-circuit TV equipment, which totaled about $2 million in 1954, reached about $3 million last year. For 1955, this represented the installation of some 600 new industrial TV units. One TV manufacturer has already predicted that at least 3500 such installations will be made in 1956. In not too many years, say some industry spokesmen, the sales of industrial television equipment will actually exceed those of entertainment TV. Unlike entertainment TV, which is transmitted through the air to millions of viewers at a time, closed-circuit TV is transmitted by coaxial cable to only limited audiences—in fact, to perhaps an audience of only one. TV may make it possible for that one person to observe critical processes that may be too 1058
C&EN
MARCH
5,
1956
dangerous, too inaccessible, too hot, too cold, or too difficult to view in a conventional manner. With TV, he can: • check remote meters, gages, and nozzles • monitor hazardous operations in an explosives plant • observe an intensely hot operation in a steel mill • explore the burning of jet engine fuels • follow the flow of process materials • watch trucks and railroad cars entering plants at distant points. Industrial television can save time. It can save labor. It can save money. It may also save lives.
Television in Education Shortly after TV emerged in the late forties as a new technique for mass communication, it began making its impact on education. From the outset,
school leaders recognized that here was an amazingly versatile instrument that might offer education tremendous advantages. But the problem was: How could TV best be used? Among the first civilian groups to jump into educational TV were medical schools. These found that, with TV, hundreds of students at a time could watch the most intricate surgical operations and other medical procedures at remarkably close range. Steady progress in educational TV continued throughout the early fifties. Yet only within the past few years have schools of all types begun to experiment with TV in earnest. In 1954, about 30 colleges and universities in the U. S. were equipped with their own closedcircuit television facilities. Today, the figure is about 60. In many schools, such as Northwestern, Indiana University, Kansas State,. College, and Boston University, closedcircuit TV is employed primarily for student training in television techniques. At the same time, in an in-
creasing number of other schools, TV is being used in the teaching of standard college courses. In some cases, television has not been adopted because it is necessary or even desirable. Rather, it has been used experimentally to determine whether TV is actually a practical method of education. Many schools, aided by such organizations as the Ford Foundation's Fund for the Advancement of Education and Radio Corp. of America, have been developing a valuable backlog of experience in TV. Should the day arrive—say, 10 years hence—when some vastly expanded program of education is necessary, will TV be the answer? Mounting enrollments provide ample grounds for concern. College enrollments are expected to rise from 2.8 million today to about 3.2 million by 1960 and about 4.9 million by 1970. Although predictions of future growth vary, there is general agreement that, sometime between 1966 and 1971, the nation's college enrollments will be double what they were in 1954. Despite rapid increases in student numbers, the availability of teachers has gone down, not up—especially in the sciences. Faced with these problems, what can colleges realistically do? One suggestion: try closed-circuit television. Since TV can be presented to numerous classes simultaneously, one person might be able to do the teaching job otherwise requiring several teachers. At Stephens College, for example, one instructor can lecture to 50 classrooms simultaneously. In this way, Stephens is now televising its freshman orientation course twice weekly to more than 800 students. As another potential asset, TV can extend the influence of outstanding teachers. Today, educators are aware of the need for improving or at least maintaining present teaching standards. TV might be the one way to enable outstanding teachers to reach the maximum number of students.
H o w Industry Is Using Closed-Circuit TV Consolidated Edison Pacific G a s & Electric
are using it to indicate at central control station water level in boilers, flame in furnaces, and smoke coming from stacks. U . S . Steel
.
is using TV to make rapid adjustments in hot-rolled steel that passes through a strip mill. Babcock 6* W i l c o x
lets one man take complete control of continuous billet-pouring operation. Alcoa
has a camera to permit an operator to determine quickly the presence of an off-center load that might ruin the accuracy of a 35,000-ton forging press. Peter J . Schweitzer, Inc.
uses it in production of cigarette paper by watching pulp-washing tank to guard against possible jamming or plugging. Pittsburgh Plate Glass
is able to watch amount of crushed limestone in five storage bins of a cement plant. A b e r d e e n Proving G r o u n d
increases operation safety by checking handling of shells and explosives. Umatilla Ordnance D e p o t
watches remote-control dismantling of World War II bombs. Argonne National Lab
has introduced TV to the lab as an aid in remote handling of radioactive materials. Pratt & Whitney
tests operation of gas turbines. G e n e r a l Electric
incorporates TV in a lab x-ray inspection device to produce an image 10,000 times brighter than on conventional fluoroscopic screen. Bulova W a t c h
enables production and engineering personnel in different buildings t o examine prod equipment parts and blueprints remotely, ely. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad
transmits the numbers on freight cars entering its Chicago yards. Sun O i l
last year introduced a new gasoline to 14,000 dealers and distributors in 30 cities. Its saving: 60% in cost and 40 days in contacting group individually. International Business Machines
introduced its electronic data processing machine to its top salesmen in New York while leaving equipment in Poughkeepsie. Foote Mineral
pioneered its use at annual meetings by taking its stockholders on "plant tours." American M a n a g e m e n t Association
Televised Chemistry Thus far, at least three U. S. colleges have experimented with closed-circuit TV in teaching chemistry. Iowa State College, for example, has been using TV in one of its freshman courses. Evaluation of this study is still under way. Last year, Louisiana State University used closed-circuit TV in various parts
watched a labor-management conference between Rogers Corp. and International Brotherhood of Paper Makers as a feature of its Chicago meeting last year; then this year was shown a demonstration of research done to determine why consumers buy one product and not another. Society of Plastics Engineers
took a tour of Du Pont's new plastics sales-service lab some 560 miles away via closed-circuit TV. Smith, Kline & French Labs
spends about $200,000 a year for its color TV shows demonstrating latest advances in medical and surgical techniques to doctors.
MARCH
5,
1956
C&EN
1059
Broadcast C a m e r a Weight: 100 pounds Tubes: 60 Cost: $20,000
Industrial C a m e r a Weight: 5 to 8 pounds Tubes: about 3 Cost: $1000α to $4000 Simplified system designed for use with standard home TV receiver.
of its laboratory course in chemical microscopy. Television was found im mensely effective in allowing all stu dents t o see what was going on under a demonstration microscope. This semester, LSU is beginning its first experiment with televised teaching of an entire lecture course in quantita tive analysis. One-half of the students are taking the course in the regular lec ture room, while the other half are see ing it in a nearby viewing room equipped with three TV receivers. This project, which is purely explora tory, is providing the background for a much more extensive study to be car ried out next fall. The prime emphasis at LSU is on determining whether TV can improve t h e quality of chemistry instruction (such as by giving students a clearer view of demonstrations). Whether TV can be used successfully to handle in creased numbers of students is quite secondary.
receiving rooms, each equipped with one or two 24-inch receivers. How well did the students d o scholastically? In four examinations given throughout the semester, the average scores of each group showed no signifi cant differences. In other words, Penn State found that the learning of information, as tested, was neither aided nor handicapped by TV. Of all the Penn State students who took the televised course, some 4 5 % , in replying to a questionnaire, said they believed they had learned less than conventionally taught students. About 37% felt that the amount learned would have been about the same either way. Last fall, the Penn State experiment
was modified. During the first four weeks, half of the students took the course in the lecture room, while the other half received the same course by TV. During the second four weeks, the two groups switched places. At the start of the third four-week period, all the students received as signed seats in the lecture room. They were then told that they could either remain in these designated seats for the balance of the semester or could transfer to one of die TV viewing rooms. Given this alternative, about 3 5 % of the students decided to switch to a TV viewing room. Although only a small percentage of the students in the first eight rows of the lecture room chose to transfer, at least 5 0 % of those in the ninth row and beyond preferred to take the remainder of the course by TV—indicating the high premium stu dents place on good visibility, the ma jor asset of TV. When identical examinations were given to all students, once again no sig nificant differences were found in the grades of those who took the course mainly in the conventional way and those who saw most of it over TV. In the current semester, the Penn State experiment has been revised once again. AU students are attending the course in the lecture room, which has now been equipped with six television receivers that enable students in the back of the room to see the instructor and demonstrations more clearly. Since this experiment has only just be gun, the results are still forthcoming. «y. -"gggasa
Experiment at Penn State By far the most detailed evaluation o f TV in the teaching of chemistry has been under way for over a year at Penn sylvania State University. In this study, launched in the spring semester o f 1955, an entire lecture course in introductory chemistry was conducted b y television on a controlled experi mental basis for the first time. At the outset, students were divided into three approximately equal groups. One group was assigned to the lecture room from which the course was tele vised; another group attended the lec tures with no television equipment pres ent; remaining students watched the entire course over TV in five nearbv 1060
C&EN
MARCH
5.
1956
TV can b e used effectively i n transmitting data. Here it is being used for communication of credit information, as w e l l as for signature verification
Lifting the professor out of the classroom via TV lets him lecture to many more students and smaller classes
Advantages to Teachers I n analyzing the Penn State experiment and other T V projects elsewhere, educators point to the advantages of this new teaching technique. Many school administrators, while doubting that the video tube will ever replace the teacher, believe that TV can b e a n aid to education. And even if T V
proves unsuitable in some cases in teaching complete courses, it might still b e used effectively in some portions of courses. Here, obviously, much depends on the nature of the course itself and on t h e skill of the instructor. Often, reactions to educational TV are most favorable among teachers already under heavy enrollment pressures. For the professor who, with
Portions of this article are based on the Symposium on the Ose of Closed-Circuit Television in the Teaching of Chemistry presented by the Division of Chemical
Education at the 128th National Meeting of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY,
Minneapolis, Minn., Sept. 11 to 16, 1955. Introductory Remarks W. Conard Fernelius Pennsylvania State University Educational Uses of Television Burton Paulu University of Minnesota The Use of Television at Louisiana State University Philip W. West Louisiana State University An Experiment in Teaching General Chemistry hy Closed-Circuit Television Grant W. Smith Pennsylvania State University Use has also been made of the Pennsylvania State University report, "An Investigation of Closed-Circuit Television for Teaching University Courses:9 by C. R. Carpenter and L. P. Greenhill, 1955.
little relish, is now teaching 5 0 0 students at a time in a single lecture room, TV offers the prospect of individual classes on a delightfully smaller scale. Of course, television need not be limited exclusively to the classroom. It can also be used in laboratory courses— for example, to train students in glass blowing and in operating analytical balances. It can also serve as an aid in lab demonstrations of small-scale or dangerous experiments. As a further advantage, TV, by increasing the number of students per instructor, might decrease the cost of education. Furthermore, if a teacher can instruct five or 10 times as many students by T V as he ordinarily can in his large, elementary courses, presumably h e should have more time for other activities—advanced courses, student counseling, or his own research work.
Disadvantages to Teachers While recognizing the virtues of TV, many teachers also see major disadMARCH
5. 1956 C & E N
1061
vantages. On the subject of "more free time," for example, they point out that the time gained is not nearly as much as might be expected. They find that their preparation for TV courses— where the big emphasis is on dramatic visual presentation—often requires appreciably more time than for standard courses. Although a TV instructor doesn't necessarily have to operate a three-ring circus, he still recognizes that it doesn't take too much for a student's attention to wander away from the TV screen. One of the biggest drawbacks of TV is its interference with normal teacherstudent contact. Such contact, say many educators, is one of the prime satisfactions of teaching. "This type of interaction," one teacher explains, "represents a kind of vital reinforcement for the instructor's own enthusiasm. . . . To a large extent, such interaction is lost in television presentation." One TV chemistry instructor at Penn State declares: "I attribute the success of our TV chemistry experiment partially to the fact that the students maintained normal contact with the instructors in the conventional recitation and laboratory periods accompanying the course." At Penn State, the majority of instructors directly connected with the TV project are opposed to its indefinite continuation, although they have been entirely willing to accept it on an experimental basis. One of the most serious shortcomings of TV as presently used, they say, is its lack of color. One TV instructor says he deliberately avoids demonstrations where color changes are critical. In experiments involving indicators, for example, he's afraid the whole point will be missed. While admitting that color television is just a matter of time, many teachers ask pointedly: How much time will it take before color television at reasonable cost is available for use in schools? TV also presents limitations on the use of blackboards. Handwriting more than five feet in length cannot be easily read from a TV receiver. This can be a special handicap to the teacher who normally fills blackboard after blackboard with copious notes. Teachers also have to accustom themselves to working under a battery of hot, glaring floodlights. One instructor explains that he hasn't minded that too much— except last summer when the air conditioning system suddenly broke down. Teachers don't hesitate to make other comments about TV. Says one: 1062
C&EN
MARCH
5,
1956
"Television, with its minimum of student participation, means that the learner's role in the educational process becomes more passive than ever." Says a chemistry teacher: "Use of television should be deferred until it becomes a positive economic necessity." Some teachers criticize TV severely as a move in the direction of "lockedstep" education. Teaching, they say, should be geared to the specific needs and rates of learning of individual students and individual classes. They declare that, .when TV ("a device for mechanized education") is used to teach 500 or 1000 students at a time, the quality of education will inevitably deteriorate.
Student Responses to TV Chemistry teachers at Penn State say that, when they have informally discussed the TV project with their students, the responses have usually been neutral or somewhat negative. Actually, the students haven't been particularly vocal on the subject one way or the other. This, says one professor, may only be one more indication that the present crop of students is still part of "the silent generation." It may also mean that the students have resigned themselves to a you-can't-fight-CityHall attitude toward the whole project or have decided that the instructors, in using TV, presumably know what they are doing. The students recognize, of course, that TV offers advantages. It puts every one in front row center. Equipment and experiments can be viewed at very close range. Students can also see and hear the teacher more clearly (which has always been something of a problem to chaps like Winfred Zyskowski who have usually found themselves in the back rows of classrooms). Students also recognize the major limitations of TV. They stress, for example, the lack of personal contact with the teacher, the lack of color, and the lack of a third dimension to provide a sense of depth. Some say that the T V screen's limited focus of attention induces boredom and drowsiness. Others comment that, when the camera follows the instructor to another part of the classroom, they can no longer take notes on material just written on the blackboard. On the other hand, students and teachers are decidedly enthusiastic about the use of TV screens directly in the lecture room to provide an enlarged
view of equipment and experiments. Since 1952, the physics department of Cornell University has been using this form of lecture room TV in its freshman and sophomore courses. Television screens strategically located in various parts of the room have proved especially effective in demonstrations of Brownian movement, surface tension, light interference, and the behavior of high-energy particles in a cloud chamber.
How Expensive Is It? As far as the cost of educational TV i s concerned, Penn State says that its vidicon equipment costs about $12,000 for a complete two-camera hookup. By comparison, image orthicon equipment (which is twice as sensitive to. light but is less rugged and less portable) would have cost between $35,000 and $45,000. Labor costs are another big factor. Television ordinarily requires not only an instructor but a cameraman, a person to operate the controls, observers for TV classes, and equipment repairmen. The net effect is that no manpower may actually be saved, although much of the auxiliary help is usually less skilled and thus less costly than the regular teaching staff. Penn State doesn't hesitate to say that its televised chemistry course, which has been sponsored by the Fund for the Advancement of Education, has been appreciably more expensive than conventional instruction. On the other hand, Penn State points out that, with not too great an additional expenditure, the same course could have been given to five or 10 times as many students. Present indications are that TV can reduce costs significantly only where it can be used with relatively large numbers of students. Obviously, campus TV is today one of education's most controversial issues. Says Columbia's Henry Steele Commager: "The new audiovisual techniques . . . are doubtless valuable in elementary instruction, but appear to have little relevance to the encouragement of intellectual activity or to training for the professions. What is needed in American education is higher rather than lower standards/' At the same time, Milton Eisenhower, president of Penn State, declares that TV may well be the greatest single aid to education devised in this century. •
