USEFULNESS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH. RETHINKING

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USEFULNESS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH. RETHINKING ANALYTICAL R&D&T STRATEGIES Miguel Valcarcel Anal. Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03935 • Publication Date (Web): 27 Sep 2017 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 1, 2017

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Analytical Chemistry

AC Perspectives article (Second version of ac-2017-033077)

USEFULNESS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH. RETHINKING ANALYTICAL R&D&T STRATEGIES* Miguel Valcárcel† Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences, Valverde 24, 28071 Madrid, Spain. e-mail [email protected]

AB STRACT This opinion article is intended to help foster true innovation in Research & Development & Transfer (R&D&T) in Analytical Chemistry in the form of advances that are primarily useful for analytical purposes rather than solely for publishing. Devising effective means to strengthen the crucial contribution of Analytical Chemistry to progress in Chemistry, Science & Technology, and Society requires carefully examining the present status of our discipline, and also identifying internal and external driving forces with a potential adverse impact on its development. The diagnostic process should be followed by administration of an effective therapy and supported by adoption of a theragnostic strategy if Analytical Chemistry is to enjoy a better future.

Keywords: Analytical chemistry, innovation, research, development, transfer, social responsibility, quality.

*

The author dedicates this farewell article to all analytical chemists truly committed to innovation in basic and applied research for the sustained improvement of our scientific discipline. † Corresponding author

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INNOVATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Rather than being provocative or polemic, this article is intended to stimulate debate and rethinking of a much need different approach to Research, Development and Transfer of Knowledge and Technology (R&D&T) in Analytical Chemistry. I have deliberately replaced “innovation”, the third term in the classical R&D&I triad, with “transfer” here for good reasons. As originally conceived by Einstein and Kuhn, innovating involves creating new paradigms, breaking traditional scientific and technical barriers, taking side roads, avoiding duplication in the form of variations on a well-worn theme and braving the risk of failing (see Figure 1, which depicts the concept in its broadest sense and also in relation to Science & Technology, and to other areas of knowledge). Innovation is an essential ingredient for any strategy intended to fulfill the priority actions of Science & Technology as defined in the Lund Declaration of 2015 on the grand societal challenges.1 All areas of knowledge should have a well-defined ranking of objectives consistent with their paradigms. At the top of the Analytical Chemistry ranking is production of reliable (bio)chemical information, assuring that such information possesses a high metrological quality and effectively fulfilling the requirements of those demanding the information.2 One new paradigm for Analytical Chemistry could be implementing direct routine analyses in order to reliably bypass preliminary operations, which are a bottleneck in many analytical processes; in fact, as pointed out by my research group log ago,3 preliminary operations are typically timeconsuming and the principal source of determinate and indeterminate errors. Therefore, evolving to reliable direct analyses is essential for our discipline to progress. Innovation implicitly or explicitly calls for a change of mentality, one by which facts and concepts that have been widely accepted before are challenged to construct new knowledge consistent with present times and societal needs however risky stepping into the “quicksand” of change may be. According to Kuhn and Galison, Dyson’s question “Is science mostly driven by ideas or by tools?”4 is incomplete because basic scientific developments should be additionally driven by the need to face human 2 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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challenges. In Analytical Chemistry, this implies making the demands of (bio)chemical information, and the characteristics of the information, the third basic standard in addition to the two classical ones,5, 6 namely: reference (tangible) materials and written standards. Below are described the most needed innovation lines for Analytical Chemistry. Identifying misguided approaches to useful R&D&T in Analytical Chemistry entails unambiguously defining what true innovation in our discipline is. Also, it requires diagnosing the complex present status not only of Analytical Chemistry, but also of Science & Technology in general; in fact, both are under growing “ailments” caused by a body of compounding adverse factors that necessitate an effective “therapy” or “theragnosis” —a combination of “therapy” and “diagnosis”. Innovating in Analytical Chemistry unavoidably entails considering its contradictory aims (metrological quality and problem-solving), as well as its maximizing (more, better analytical information) and minimizing objectives (less material, time, effort, cost and risk), which are also mutually contradictory. A sound balance among these antagonistic components can only be established by previously accepting the inescapable need for “quality tradeoffs” in our discipline.

USEFULESS OF ANALYTICAL R&D&T What does “useful analytical research” mean? The answer is not easy and can be approached from different angles. For example, to young and junior analytical researchers, “useful” here probably means publishing as many papers in journals of a high impact factor as possible to expand their CVs with a view to professional or academic promotion. Although senior analytical researchers may also aim at publishing (e.g., to gain awards, increase their reputation or obtain funding for new research), they should additionally pursue objectives such as the following to ensure that their research work is or can be useful (see Figure 2):



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(1) Producing reliable chemical, biochemical —and, occasionally, also physico–chemical— information to facilitate well-grounded, timely decisions. (2) Systematically aiming at innovation in Analytical Chemistry in the three steps of the R&D&T process in Science & Technology, namely: Research (basic and applied), Development and Transfer of Knowledge and Technology. (3) Engaging in all steps of the R–D–T sequence to produce signals (primary data), results (information) and knowledge (reports) as research outputs. (4) Devising genuinely innovative tangible (e.g., new instruments, reagents, sorbents) and intangible approaches (e.g., strategies to address actual problems). (5) Tackling new and previously unsolved analytical problems to derive (bio)chemical information from natural and artificial objects and systems. (6) Working interdisciplinarily. Unfortunately, some of the previous objectives are rarely addressed in current research —not even if published in highly reputed analytical journals. As noted earlier, most authors aim at publishing as much as possible in high-impact journals in order to further their careers. This situation clearly necessitates a gradual but profound change. Interestingly, as early as 1993, Lundell7 suggested that more time be devoted to improving —innovating— in chemical analysis than to having the analyst work in the dark following detailed protocols. Such a worrying scenario is not exclusive to Analytical Chemistry, however; rather, it is commonplace in Science & Technology in general. The driving force for writing this paper was a sound article by Ioannidis8 entitled “Why most clinical research is not useful?” and published in 2016 where he pinpoints the attributes of actually useful clinical research, and exposes the social and economic causes of deviations from the true target, which is disease prevention and cure. Ioannidis’ paper and my long experience in the topic sparked a wish to write about my personal feelings on the actual 4 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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usefulness of Analytical Science by completing its message and adapting it to the present and foreseeable future of R&D&T in Analytical Chemistry.

BASIC AND APPLIED ANALYTICAL RESEARCH According to the Frascati and Oslo manuals,9,

10

distinguishing basic research from

applied research is nearly pointless: there is quality research and all other, whether basic or applied. Basic research can be very useful as long as it is truly pioneering and provides a solid platform for developing also useful applied research. According to Braben,11 this type of research involves a risk worth taking —one such as the risk component of innovation in Figure 1. Basic research work should rest on so-named “oriented basic research” (viz., research aimed at a useful long-term target) rather than on “sky-blue research”.8 The latter is research conducted for no innovative purpose but rather merely for publishing and sometimes leads to “cloned” papers of no significance or added value (e.g., papers reporting the results obtained in “new” experiments performed under conditions differing a mere 0.3 pH units or a couple of degrees centigrade) that are submitted almost simultaneously to different journals without reference to one another. This is an unethical practice leading to no actual progress but unfortunately continuing to occur. Basic and applied research in Analytical Chemistry should be aimed at fulfilling the two major aims and objectives of this scientific discipline. Figure 3 illustrates the types, stages and objectives of analytical chemical research in an integral approach to R&D&T.2 The first type of R&D in Analytical Chemistry (Figure 3.1) is basic research (i.e., more R than D). This is the first stage and is intended to increase the ability to extract (bio)chemical information with a view to developing new analytical processes or improving existing ones. Thus, basic analytical chemical research involves developing new measuring instruments for multidisciplinary use, new reagents and solvents for more effective analytical processes (methods), new chemometric tools or new 5 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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approaches to analytical problems Basic research ends with the obtainment of these tangible or intangible “products”; also, obviously, it provides support for applied research. The second type of R&D in Analytical Chemistry (Figure 3.2.) is applied research, which involves more D than R and is intended to produce quality (bio)chemical information and knowledge by using analytical processes to extract useful information from objects and systems. The primary aim of applied analytical chemical research is to fulfill information requirements with a view to solving analytical problems. Simple applied research (Figure 3.2) uses tools, processes and approaches deriving from basic research to obtain (bio)chemical information. In some situations (Figure 3.3), sequentially combined basic and applied research is required. Such is the case, for example, when the “products” of basic research are inadequate to solve an analytical problem. This situation requires starting with oriented basic research and following with appropriate applied research.

DIAGNOSING THE SITUATION Positive advances in Analytical Chemistry The author has had the privilege of witnessing the impressive positive evolution of Analytical Chemistry over the last fifty years. The process has gone through three crucial inflection points, namely: the inception of instrumental methods superseding the classical methods of analysis of the 1950s, the increasing role of computers in the analytical process and the emergence of some important realities including Analytical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in the early XXI century. There follow selected major advances in Analytical Chemistry from past to present. All should be credited to the endeavors of committed colleagues throughout the world. – From inorganic and organic analysis to bioanalysis; – from discriminating reagent-based and instrumental chemistry to dealing with them jointly; 6 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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– from single signals to multiplexed signals; – from discriminated information for an analyte to global information about a group of analytes (e.g., total indices); – from the classical (capital, basic and productivity-related) analytical properties12 to the summative property “reliability”, which is easier to understand by clients requiring (bio)chemical information; – from analytical processes involving some sample treatment to reliable direct routine analyses in the framework of vanguard–rearguard analytical strategies;13 – from classical instruments to others based on new principles; – from manual, complex, macro analyses to automated, simplified, miniaturized analytical processes; – from conventional materials to the use of nanomaterials as sorbents and sensors in the framework of Analytical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology;14 – from macro and micro analyses to nanoworld and space analyses; – from solving problems by using conventional information to developing new strategies to address the problems posed by society and industry; – from dealing with metrology and problem-solving in isolation to operating with them jointly in so-named “quality tradeoffs”;15 – from delivering primary data to producing analytical information and knowledge;16 – from Analytical Quality to Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry; – from Analytical Chemistry operating in isolation to its taking an active role in interdisciplinary studies and work. – from unsustainable laboratories to green methods of analysis. Each analytical scientist may have their own list; a list whose elements are not watertight compartments but rather share some common interfaces.



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Potentially misfocused approaches to analytical R&D&T Although the current status of Analytical Chemistry is quite acceptable, a need remains to reconsider the potential threats to further progress in this scientific discipline. A more accurate diagnosis of the situation can be obtained by examining the internal and external driving forces of such threats.

External negative driving forces With few exceptions, these forces are common to R&D&T in Analytical Chemistry and to Science & Technology in general. The most salient are probably the following: (1) Publishing at any rate rather than contributing genuinely useful novelties to the advancement of Science & Technology. As can be seen in Figure 4, the balance should be tipped against the prioritization of routine publishing. (2) A prevalence of personal and institutional interests over those of Science & Technology. Unfortunately, individual and institutional prestige continues to be largely measured in quantitative terms (see item 3 below). Publishing nearly identical papers (“clones”) merely to expand personal and institutional CVs is akin to building a symphony from a very limited number of chords. (3) Using exclusively quantitative indicators such as numbers of papers or citations, impact factors or Hirsh indices to assess the goodness of scientific and technological research rather than answering revealing questions about their quality such as “What is actually innovative?”, “What is the added value of the paper relative to previous contributions, whether by the same author or group or by others?”, “Is the paper a clone of a previous one?”, “Does it report interdisciplinary work?” or “What is its anticipated impact on existing basic or applied research?”. (4) A shortage of interdisciplinarity favored by an individual approach to research instead of close cooperation with and/or dependence on peers with diverging mentalities and interests. Establishing productive liaisons among different areas


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of knowledge requires overcoming the high activation energy of starting work at the boundaries of different areas of knowledge. (5) The systematic oblivion of “research reproducibility”, a term accurately defined by Goodman et al.,17 despite its crucial significance. (6) As a result of the previous item, a lack of transparency in published articles. Many experimental procedures are described in a way that precludes reproduction by others. If authors wish to protect the ingeniousness of their work they should apply for patents rather than hide technical details of their procedures to prevent others from replicating them. (7) Disregarding current major trends in Science & Technology in planning research work (e.g., by sticking to macro analyses and manual work rather than exploiting advances in automation and miniaturization). (8) Scientific publishing continuing to be a highly engrossing business. On June 27, 2017, Buranyi18 asked the following question in the British newspaper The Guardian: “Is the staggeringly profitable business of scientific publishing bad for science?” The answer can only be a resounding yes. Publishers are exploiting the need of scientists to publish without considering that their massive benefits are to a great extent due to their “client’s” research work. Rather than charging for online publication, they should make accepted papers freely accessible by all scientists —which would additionally make dubiously legal web pages such as Sci-Hub redundant. One illustrative example of the ceaseless growth of the scientific publishing business is the inception of more than forty new journals containing the prefix “nano” in their names over the past decade. (9) The widespread lack of adherence to Social Responsibility (SR) principles in Science & Technology.19 SR is a combination of key features including accountability, transparency, ethics, law abidance and respect of human rights, which, together are intended to fulfill the needs and expectations of the main stakeholders: citizens. In fact, our fellow citizens should be the ultimate beneficiaries of scientific and technological achievements; therefore, their 9 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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interests should prevail over those of scientists, research centers, institutions, and publishers, however important they may be.

Internal negative driving forces “Internal” here refers to the specific negative connotations of analytical R&D&T in addition to the general ones described in the previous section. The most salient driving forces of this type are as follows: (1) Frequently ignoring the true aims (a high metrological quality and problemsolving) and objectives [the obtainment of more, better (bio)chemical information with less material, time, effort, costs and risks] of Analytical Chemistry, which seriously hinders progress in analytical R&D&T. (2) Analytical chemists accepting that their discipline plays a secondary role in the chemical realm. This is partly the result of refusing to lead tuition on the new generation of instruments emerging in the late XX century. In many countries other than USA, Mass Spectrometry has traditionally “pertained” to Organic Chemistry and X-Ray Spectrometry to Inorganic Chemistry. Although the situation has changed markedly, some chemists who have been mistaught what Analytical Chemistry is and does continue to regard it as a second-class discipline of Chemistry. (3) Derived from the previous force, underestimating the ability of analytical chemists to engage in interdisciplinary work. To many, analytical chemists are simply high-level technicians who analyze myriads of samples for primary data rather than potential contributors to key discussions such as those arising in the data–information–knowledge–decision-making process. (4) A lack of genuine interest among analytical chemists in the transfer of analytical knowledge and technology —the last step in the R&D&T sequence and the ultimate proof of whether published research is actually useful.


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(5) Underestimating the actual significance of Applied Analytical Chemistry relative to Basic Analytical Chemistry —the latter is frequently considered to be the “output” of more brilliant brains. This often leads to analytical researchers aiming solely at publishing in highly reputed journals rather than at solving real-life analytical problems. (6) Scant production of reference materials (RMs) and certified reference materials (CRMs). Commercially available CRMs have been estimated to fulfill only 3–6% of current needs for the overall validation of chemical measurement processes —a task pertaining to Applied Analytical Chemistry. The arsenal of analytical tools should therefore be expanded with new RMs and CRMs, which are typically the “products” of basicoriented analytical research (see Figure 3). (7) The fact that all instruments and sensors provide primary data and thus require the involvement of no specialists —but rather what Lundell calls “workers in the dark”7 in routine analyses. (8) Disregarding the potential of Analytical Chemistry for developing Quality Systems that can be “exported” from analytical laboratories to other disciplines of Chemistry (e.g., batch-to-batch reproducibility in organic– inorganic synthetic procedures). (9) Failing to assure Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry20,

21

as a

natural expansion of classical Analytical Quality Systems. (10)

Misconceiving method validation. To many analytical chemists,

characterizing a candidate method by experimentally determining its figures of merit is more than enough to validate it when, in fact, they should also confirm that the method is fit for its intended purpose by using CRMs, applying it to real samples in interlaboratory exercises or using wellestablished, statistically supported alternative reference methods for comparison.



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THERAPIES FOR A BETTER HEALTH OF ANALYTICAL R&D&T The negative driving forces described in the previous two sections can be countered with effective therapies encouraging analytical chemists to fight the ensuing “diseases” after they have been accurately diagnosed. The proposed therapies, summarized in Figure 5, are as follows: (1) being proud of one’s discipline, its aims and its objectives; (2) being aware of the crucial importance of proper education in its principles; (3) harmonizing the basic and applied sides of analytical research; (4) recognizing the importance of transfer of analytical knowledge and technology; (5) developing new, better (e.g., simpler) quality systems; (6) having scientists and publishers recognize the significance of a wide array of RMs and CRMs to Analytical Chemistry as a metrological discipline; (7) validating new methods in terms of not only quantitative but also qualitative indicators; and (8) systematically practicing Social Responsibility to extend the socio– economic projection of our discipline. The misguided approaches to Science & Technology in general can also be fought with specific therapies such as the following: (1) balancing research usefulness and dissemination-related (publication) productivity; (2) having the goals of Science & Technology prevail over personal and institutional interests; (3) deeply changing current assessment indicators for scientific and technical merit, both individual and collective; (4) ensuring reproducibility and transparency in reported research; (5) having publishers share part of their benefits with scientists in order to promote better Science & Technology; (6) fostering productive interdisciplinary activities; and 12 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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(7) unconditionally supporting Social Responsibility.

THE FUTURE: THERA(G)NOSIS In Medicine, “theragnosis” —often abbreviated to “theranosis”— is a smart on-time, insitu, in-vivo combination of diagnoses and therapies.22 Here, the term is used to refer to prevention procedures intended to completely or at least partly suppress external and internal negative driving forces while it is still possible. The two components of thera(g)nosis in analytical chemical research can be implemented in two different sequences, namely: (1) Therapy + diagnosis. This sequence comes into play when, for example, a method is validated against qualitative and quantitative indicators, and its usefulness is assessed in terms of the body of research based on it that is published later on. Also, this sequence applies when the outcome of a therapy intended to raise interest in developing new RMs and CRMs is assessed (diagnosed) in terms of the number of papers on the target topic published in the previous years to fulfill the needs of analytical chemists in this respect. (2) Diagnosis + therapy. This is the more usual sequence. If genuinely interdisciplinary work where Analytical Chemistry is a well-regarded partner is judged (diagnosed) scant, then having journal editors and funding agencies, among others, promote interdisplinarity is the obvious therapy of choice.

FINAL REMARKS Analytical Chemistry has by now consolidated as an essential discipline of Chemistry thanks to the endeavors of committed analytical chemists who have contributed truly useful innovations for over half a century. This was recognized in 2015 in an enlightening article 2015 by Whitesides,23 a renowned chemist of Harvard University, with phrases such as “the strategic importance of chemical information”, “Analytical 13 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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chemistry is a much more important chemical discipline than many believe” or “one of the most crucial steps starting new scientific and technical areas is the development of innovative analytical techniques to support analysis”. On the occasion of the celebration of 2011 as International Year of Chemistry, I was asked by Talanta to write a paper wondering whether a different approach to Analytical Chemistry was possible.24 The answer was yes, but only if analytical chemists were willing to innovate and cast off obsolete paradigms. We analytical chemists should recognize the individual and collective difficulties faced in overcoming the activation barrier that leads to systematically improved R&D&T in Analytical Chemistry. Based on my own experience, this requires permanent stimulus and support (especially for young analytical chemists), and also an awareness of its strategic significance. The future buzzwords in Analytical Chemistry should coincide with the six major goals depicted in Figure 2.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my deep gratitude to my teachers, colleagues, almost all former students, and technical and administrative staff, who decisively contributed to my sustained, growing engagement, commitment and devotion to Analytical Chemistry.

NOTE: The author is solely responsible for the opinions contained in this article, a distillation of his experience of almost 50 years intended to stimulate young analytical chemists. Any comments from Analytical Chemistry readers are welcome at [email protected].


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REFERENCES (1) Lund Declaration 2015. Lund 2009 revisited: Next steps in tackling societal challenges”. https://rio.jrc.ec.europa.eu/en/news/lund-declaration-2015-lund-revisited. (2) Valcárcel, M.; López-Lorente, A. I.; López-Jiménez, M. A. Foundations of Analytical Chemistry. Springer: Heidelberg, 2017. (3) Valcárcel, M.; Luque de Castro, M. D.; Tena, M. T. Preliminary operations: A pending goal of today’s Analytical Chemistry. Anal. Proceed. (RSC) 1993, 30, 276– 291. (4) Dyson, F. J. Is Science mostly driven by ideas or tools? Science 2012, 338, 1426– 1427. (5) Valcárcel, M. Analytical Chemistry, today and tomorrow. In Analytical Chemistry, Krull, I.S., Ed.; InTech: Riejeka (Croatia), 2012. (6) Valcárcel, M. Quo vadis, Analytical Chemistry? Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2016, 408, 13–21. (7) Lundell, G. E. F. The chemical analysis of things as they are. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1933, 5 (4), 221–225. (8) Ioannidis, J. P. A. Why most clinical research is not useful? June PLOS.Med. 2016, 6, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002049. (9) Frascati Manual. Guidelines for collecting and reporting data on research and experimental developments, OECD Pu.: Paris, 2015. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/frascati-manual2015_9789264239012-en;jsessionid=gqq8sgsi0rcrc.x-oecd-live-02 (10) Oslo Manual (3rd edition). Guidelines for collecting and interpreting innovation data. OECD Pu.: Paris, 2004. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oslo-manual_9789264013100-en (11) Braben, D. W. Pioneering research. A risk worth taking. Wiley: Hoboken (NJ), 2004. (12) Valcárcel, M.; Ríos, A. The hierarchy and relationships of analytical properties. Anal. Chem1993, 65, 781A–787A. 15 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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(13) Valcárcel, M.; Cárdenas, S. Vanguard–rearguard analytical strategies. Trends Anal. Chem. 2005, 24, 67–74. (14) Soriano, M.L.; Zougagh, M.; Valcárcel, M.; Ríos, A. Analytical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Where we are and where we are heading. Talanta 2017. doi:10.106/j.talanta.2017.09.012. (15) Valcárcel, M.; Lendl, B. Analytical Chemistry at the interface between metrology and problem solving. Trends Anal. Chem. 2004, 23, 527–534. (16) Valcárcel, M.; Simonet, B.. Types of analytical information and their mutual relationships. Trends Anal. Chem. 2008, 27, 490–499. (17) Goodman, S. N.; Fanelli, D.; Ioannidis, J. P. A. What does research reproducibility means? Sci. Trans. Med. 2016, 8, 341ps12. (18) Burannyi, S. Is the staggeringly profitable business of scientific publishing bad for science?

The

Guardian,

27

June

2017.

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jun/27/profitable-business-scientificpublishing-bad-for-science (19) Krogsgaard-Larsen, P.; Thostrup, P.; Besenbacher, F. Scientific social responsibility: A call to arms. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 10738–10740. (20) Valcárcel M.; Lucena R. Social responsibility in Analytical Chemistry. Trends Anal. Chem. 2012, 31, 1–7. (21) Valcárcel M.; Christian, G.; Lucena, R. Teaching social responsibility in Analytical Chemistry. Anal. Chem. (ACS) 2013, 85, 6152–6161. (22) Selvan, S.T.; Narayanan, K. Introduction to nanoteranostics. Springer: Heidelberg, 2016. (23) Whitesides, G.M. Reinventing chemistry. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 2–16. (24) Valcarcel, M. Is a new approach to Analytical Chemistry possible? Talanta 2011, 85, 1707–1708.


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FIGURE LEGENDS

Figure 1. (A) Schematic definition of “true innovation”. (B) Transversal application of the concept in the three steps of the R&D&T sequence in Science & Technology, and in other areas of knowledge. Note that the last step in the sequence is named “Transfer” instead of the more usual “Innovation”.

Figure 2. Main goals to be fulfilled in making analytical R&D&T useful.

Figure 3. Three ways of conducting basic and applied research in Analytical Chemistry. For details, see text. Reproduced from reference 2 with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 4. Unbalanced (A) and balanced (B) situations of the main driving forces of R&D&T. A third situation not shown is also possible when usefulness prevails over publication.

Figure 5. Selected therapies for improving the health of today’s and tomorrow’s Analytical Chemistry as derived from internal diagnostics (Analytical Chemistry realm) and external diagnostics (Science & Technology realm).



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Figure 1


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Figure 2



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Figure 3


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Figure 4



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Figure 5


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For TOC only


USEFULNESS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH. RETHINKING

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