Using Bad Science To Teach Good Chemistry - American Chemical

Chemistry Everyday for Everyone

Using Bad Science To Teach Good Chemistry Michael S. Epstein* Department of Science, Mount Saint Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, MD 21727

As described by Isaac Asimov, the true scientific discovery process is more likely to be preceded by the observation of an anomaly and a murmur of “that’s strange” than by the cry of “eureka”. Unfortunately, the cry of “eureka” and the resulting press conference occurs too frequently, since the appearance of anomalies usually arises from a misunderstanding of scientific principles and often results in what is termed bad, pseudo-, pathological, or deviant science. I have chosen to use the term “bad science” in this manuscript because it covers the entire continuum of scientific sins. For students, an examination of the experimental procedures and motivation of the researchers involved in cases of bad science can be extremely instructive, illustrating how to properly approach a scientific problem in a critical and openminded manner. While such topics are often used in upperlevel undergraduate courses dealing with scientific ethics, they can also be easily associated with entry-level undergraduate chemistry subjects such as such as pH, chemical kinetics, intermolecular bonding, colligative properties, atomic structure, electrolysis, trace element analysis, and experimental error. Besides making the traditional topics of general and analytical chemistry more palatable, the discussion of bad science can also be used to provide a modicum of ethics training in introductory courses in the chemical sciences. Incorporation of examples of bad science into lecture and laboratory sections of the courses can encourage scientific reasoning and ethical behavior, and provide a classroom atmosphere that encourages students to think and learn. This paper describes the incorporation of topics dealing with bad science into undergraduate courses in general chemistry (second-semester) and analytical chemistry and provides extensive references for the chemistry instructor interested in incorporating these topics in the curriculum. It takes the approach described by Kovac (1, 2) of incorporating specific cases (such as polywater [3, 4 ]) that deal with scientific ethics into the chemistry curriculum, but avoiding elaborate cases of scientific fraud. It then extends that approach to laboratory experimentation and conference attendance, which are critical experiences for neophyte scientists. What Is Bad Science? The cases described in this paper are categorized under the general heading of “bad science” and range in a continuum from misguided science involving unintentional errors all the way to pseudo science and outright scientific fraud. Some topics may actually have some scientific validity, although they have also been a magnet for pseudo-scientific claims based on investigations by those with a definite lack of critical thinking ability and experimental skills. One needs only to browse through the pages of mail order catalogs or search the Internet for environmentally safe and energy-efficient *Current address: Department of Chemistry and Physics, Hood College, 401 Rosemont Av., Frederick, MD 21701; email: [email protected].

products to find a number of examples. Nevertheless, it is important to realize and critical to impart to students that the line between good and bad science is blurred and that a few phenomena once thought to be the result of bad science have turned out to be legitimate. The most useful topics for classroom use are those near the demarcation line between good and bad science, because they often involve competent and sometimes prominent scientists who unintentionally stray from the scientific method. Many of the examples in this paper fall into that category. Unintentional mistakes leading to bad science can result from biased data selection (i.e., data don’t match the theory so they must be wrong); scientists working outside their field of expertise; and a misunderstanding of random and systematic errors in an experimental procedure. A number of the cases also include a range of scientific errors that can be classified at both ends of the bad science spectrum. For example, while most errors in the investigations of cold fusion can be classified as unintentional, there have also been several accusations of scientific fraud (5). The Allison Magneto-Optic Method of Chemical Analysis (6 ) started out as legitimate science and degenerated into bad science. In every case, important aspects to consider are the state of scientific knowledge and equipment at the time of the work, and the motivations and expertise of the investigator. The Incorporation of Bad Science into Chemical Education Curricula A four-level approach was used in the development of curricula in general and analytical chemistry that incorporated examples of bad science. This approach involved (i) lecture, discussion, and exam questions; (ii) lecture or laboratory demonstrations and video presentations; (iii) laboratory experiments; and (iv) scientific conference attendance. The most broadly applicable levels of lecture discussion and demonstration were applied to both general and analytical chemistry courses, while laboratory experimentation and scientific conference attendance were reserved for upper-level students in analytical chemistry. It is important to emphasize that these topics were only a small part of the curriculum of each course. They were employed along with other more conventional supplemental information (i.e., environmental, forensic, and clinical topics) to improve the learning experience.

Lecture, Discussion and Exam Questions Table 1 presents examples of bad science for use in general and analytical chemistry lecture and discussion. A brief discussion of each topic includes a list of possible application areas and references. Of course, the list is not exhaustive since new examples of bad science are constantly appearing. The topics were used to supplement discussion of related chemical phenomena, and were presented (when possible) in an unbiased manner to encourage discussion and critical thinking on the

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Chemistry Everyday for Everyone Table 1. Bad Science for Discussion and Lecture Presentations Topic

Comments

Applications

Polywater

The claim that water, when condensed in narrow quartz capillaries, takes on polymeric properties (4, 7 ). The effect was shown to be a result of contamination and is an outstanding example of Occam's Razor (8), that the simplest explanation is often the correct one. Of further interest is the dispute in the literature between critics of polywater regarding to the form of contamination (9, 10 ).

Experimental design; Contamination; Liquid properties; Intermolecular bonding; Colligative properties such as bp elevation and fp depression

Cold Fusion

The alleged detection of anomalous heat, tritium, neutrons, gamma rays, or He3 from electrochemical experiments involving the electrolysis of heavy water using a palladium cathode (5, 11). In addition to the topics of experimental design and scientific fraud, the implications of Pascal's Wager for scientific research can be discussed (5). Cold fusion is still discussed in at least one popular general chemistry textbook (13) as an unresolved controversy.

Electrolysis; Calorimetry; Experimental design; Atomic structure; Nuclear fusion; Radiation detectors; Contamination; Scientific fraud; Forensic analysis (GC-MS) (12)

Homeopathy

The claim that water retains the memory of dissolved substances diluted far beyond the point at which even one molecule of the solute remains, and this memory results in beneficial health effects (14). Homeopathic medicines useful as classroom props can be found in almost any drugstore.

Dilution; Experimental design; The analytical blank and contamination; Concentration units; The Avogadro number

Biotransmutation

The claim that biological systems can perform elemental transmutations by simple addition or subtraction of elements, such as Fe – H = Mn (15, 16). This claim can be traced back almost 200 years, including a 1978 U.S. Army study (17) on possible energy development from elemental transmutations in biological systems. Claims are based on differences in the elemental composition of seeds and young plants without the use of proper blanks, standards, calibration, and contamination control, and a total ignorance of methodological systematic errors (18, 19).

Contamination; Experimental design Experimental error; The analytical blank; Nuclear reactions

N-rays

The 1903 claim of renowned French physicist René Blondlot to have discovered a new, invisible radiation called N-rays that were focused by aluminum optics and detected using fluorescence. His work was investigated by American physicist Robert Wood, who proved conclusively that N-rays do not exist (20– 23).

X-rays; Spectroscopy; Wavelengthdispersive instrumentation

Pyramid Power

The claim that dramatic changes in elemental composition of water can be obtained by exposure to pyramid energy, with examples from chemical analysis (24).

Contamination; The analytical blank; Experimental error

Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions

Claims of deviations from the principle of the conservation of mass in chemical reactions, established by Landolt (25), have appeared sporadically. The claims are based on differences in mass between vessels containing reacting chemicals and empty control vessels; explanations range from buoyancy effects from increased internal vessel pressure (26) to the presence of dark matter (27).

Chemical reactions; Analytical balance; Buoyancy effects in weighing

Alchemy

Alchemical experiments were carried out at a major university (28) in an attempt to produce anomalous concentrations of gold and radioactive species (29).

Contamination; The analytical blank

Reference Material Effect

Described as the Standard Reference Materials (SRM) Syndrome (30); it is the bias in analytical mea- Experimental design; surement that seems to occur when the analyst knows what the result "should" be. Statistical analysis General analytical procedures; Quality control of literature values for SRMs with incorrect certified values for one or more elements has verified this effect (31). Similar effects are reported for replicate samples where sample weights are identical (30).

Search for the Soul

A number of experiments performed in the early part of the 20th century involved a search for physical evidence for the human soul. Among these was an attempt to determine the mass of a soul by constructing a large analytical balance and monitoring the weight of dying patients (32).

Analytical balance; Weighing errors

Allison MagnetoOptic Method of Chemical Analysis

Using a method based on the Faraday effect in liquids, Allison (6) went from conventional investigation to extraordinary claims of incredible method sensitivity and selectivity, claiming the discovery of several new elements. Subsequent research (21, 33, 34) showed the results of Allison's method to have "no objective reality".

Spark radiation sources; Faraday effect

UFOs and Cattle Mutilations

A white material found near a mutilated cow was claimed by local authorities to possess very unusual chemical and physical properties (35). Subsequent and more competent investigation found the material to be paper filler from a nearby paper plate manufacturer, and not the residue from an bovine encounter with a UFO (36).

Scanning electron microscopy; Forensic investigation

AD-X2

In 1948, the manufacturers of a battery additive called "Protecto-Charge", later called "AD-X2", requested that the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) evaluate their product on the grounds that it was an exception to previous NBS findings that "miracle" battery additives had no significant effect on either battery life or performance. When NBS again found that the additive (a simple mixture of magnesium and sodium sulfates) had no special merit, the outraged distributors of the product flooded Congress with complaints and a subsequent MIT study disagreed with the NBS results. The director of NBS was fired without a hearing, but protests by the press and scientific organizations resulted in his reinstatement and the MIT studies were later found to be flawed (37, 38).

Electrochemical cells; Batteries; Experimental design; Chemical analysis

Brown’ s Gas

Brown's Gas (39) is a stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases that, according to Thermochemistry; supporters, (i) upon ignition, implodes to form a nearly perfect vacuum; (ii) burns much hotter than Hydrogen as a fuel conventional flames (up to 6000– 8000 ° C); (iii) is stable and nonexplosive; and (iv) is "another state of water besides ice, water, and steam".

Red Mercury

Red Mercury (40, 41) is purported to be a compound of pure mercury and mercury antimony oxide that (i) can be used to make bombs and other nuclear weapons, (ii) was secretly manufactured in South Africa and the former Soviet Union, and (iii) has such explosive power that a hand grenade sized bomb could blow a ship out of the water.

Chemical reactions

Laundry Disk

Also known as Laundry Ball, Laundry CD, and Laundry Ring, this product, marketed as either an activated ceramic disk or a plastic ball containing "structured water", claims to eliminate the need for and to clean as well as or better than conventional detergents, and to make clothes last longer and minimize fading. It is said to break the bonds between molecules, enabling the individual water molecules, which are now also highly charged with negative ions, to penetrate fabric and attract the highly positively charged dirt. It works on the principles of quantum physics, not chemistry, so it is perfectly safe! The claim has been investigated by Consumer Reports (42), among others.

Intermolecular bonding; Surfactants and detergents; Liquid properties; Ceramics

Water Tester

Electrolysis This water impurity testing device is composed of iron and aluminum electrodes through which is passed electrical current. It is claimed to be useful for testing water mineral content. In an investigative report (43), the device is used by a salesman for a distilled water still to demonstrate the deplorable state of drinking water by "precipitating" the dissolved minerals. The device is simply an electrolysis cell and the precipitated material is the decomposition products from the iron electrode.

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part of students. The students were given a background in the conventional scientific theory related to the topic before discussion so that they could make informed judgements. Exam questions involving polywater, cold fusion, and the application of Pascal’s wager to scientific investigation were given to the general chemistry class. In the case of polywater, students had studied colligative properties such as boiling point elevation and freezing point depression as well as the dependence of physical properties of liquids and solids on bond stability. At that point, the outcome of the polywater controversy had not been discussed in class. Students were given the properties of polywater (density = 1.4 g/mL; molecular mass = 180 g/mol; fp = ᎑50 °C; bp > 200 °C) and asked to evaluate the existence of such a substance. Several students were astute enough to correlate the lower freezing point and higher boiling point with colligative properties, leading to the conclusion that massive contamination might account for the anomalous behavior. Another exam question dealt with the application of a paraphrased Pascal’s wager related to chemical research. “Believe, for if you believe and you are right, you gain everything; and if you believe and you are wrong, you lose nothing; but if you do not believe and you are wrong, you lose everything; and if you do not believe and you are right, you gain nothing.” A number of students were able to discern the difference between a theological belief in God, as originally represented by Pascal in his wager, and a belief related to scientific research. One student noted that “You shouldn’t believe too much, or you may see something that doesn’t exist, but you must still believe enough to spend the long hours in a laboratory that are needed to do good research.” Taube’s

book on cold fusion (5) contains a wealth of quotations from advocates dealing with science and belief that can be used to further classroom discussion. Martin Fleischmann is quoted to say that “If you really don’t believe something deeply enough before you do an experiment, you will never get it to work” and Texas A&M professor John Bockris to say that “Negative results can be obtained without skill and experience.” The motivation for successful results in a cold fusion experiment is explained by Cal Tech electrochemist Nathan Lewis: “If cold fusion were true, electrochemists would have funding beyond their wildest imaginations”.

Laboratory Demonstrations and Video Presentations Table 2 summarizes several demonstrations and video presentations of bad science topics that can be used in a chemical education curriculum. A number of sites covering the bad science discussed in this paper are also available on the World Wide Web (WWW), but since URLs change so rapidly, the best recourse is to use a WWW search engine to locate topics of interest. Computer multimedia software is also a useful tool. Stephen Lower of Simon Fraser University (52) has made available a free interactive software package titled Science, Non-Science, and Pseudoscience that he has used in general chemistry courses. A unique demonstration of psychokinesis (i.e., mind over matter, or in this case, a chemical reaction) involves a videotape of a Russian psychic changing the color of a solution of chemicals (see Fig. 1 and the discussion of psychokinesis in Table 2) that an instructor can duplicate and use in conjunction with a discussion of pH.

Table 2. Bad Science for Demonstration or Video Presentations Topic

Comments

Applications

Psychokinesis

In a video segment produced for his NOVA program, Secrets of the Psychics, but not used in the final production, James Randi (44) examines a Rasputin look-alike who claims the ability to produce chemical change by mind power or psychokinesis. The psychic, accompanied by a Russian Ph.D. chemist, causes an apparent change in the properties of a solution sitting on a magnetic stirrer. After the psychic concentrates intensely on the beaker for several minutes, with an occasional grunt, the solution turns from blue to green and finally to yellow. The psychic then sits back with a satisfied look on his face. After showing the video, the instructor puts on his psychic outfit (with safety glasses, of course) and performs the same miracle! Of course, the instructor also has a pH meter handy to demonstrate (but not before amazing the class) that the psychic is exhaling into the beaker, causing the pH to drop owing to CO2 reaction with water. The bromthymol blue indicator, originally blue owing to base added to the solution, turns green and then yellow (Fig. 1).

Experimental design (test the psychic by covering the beaker); Calculating the pH of weak acid solutions; Acid-base indicators; Aqueous equilibrium

Miracle Blood of St. Januarius

In the early 1990s, a number of publications (45, 46) reported on the work of 3 Italian scientists, Luigi Garlaschelli, Franco Ramaccini, and Sergio Della Sala, who simulated the miracle blood of St. Januarius using a thixotropic colloidal suspension of iron oxide. The miracle blood, kept in a reliquary in the cathedral of Naples, Italy, undergoes a transformation from a solid, coagulated mass to flowing liquid when displayed by the Bishop on the saint's feast days. The experiment is easily replicated as a laboratory demonstration by reacting ferric chloride with calcium carbonate and performing a dialysis using a semipermeable membrane on the resulting reaction product (47). A short video can be used to introduce the topic and demonstration (48).

Osmotic pressure; Colloids; Dialysis

Shroud of Turin

Investigations surrounding the Shroud of Turin provide a plethora of opportunities for classroom discussion (49, 50). There is probably no better example of the application of Pascal's Wager to scientific thought than the analytical chemistry associated with the Shroud's investigation. An excellent introduction to the topic is a video excerpt from Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious Universe (48). An interesting subtopic related to the Shroud investigation is the spectroscopy done to prove that a pattern in the eyes of the image matches a lepton coin from the time of Pontius Pilate (51). Using a technique called polarized image overlay, researchers projected oppositely polarized images of a lepton coin and the image of the Shroud eye onto a screen and viewed the overlapped images with a third polarizer that allowed switching back and forth between images and noting congruencies. The experiment is easily replicated as a classroom demonstration and is particularly useful in demonstrating the need for blind (and even double-blind) experimentation. Equipment required is two overhead projectors, two large and a number of small polarizers, a lenticular screen (to reflect polarized light), transparencies of different coin images, and an image of the Shroud eye.

Radiometric dating (carbon-14); Chemical kinetics; Rate laws; Radioactive half-life calculations; Experimental design; Polarization and reflection of radiation


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Laboratory Experiments Two experiments dealing with unusual scientific claims were performed as special projects in the analytical chemistry curriculum. One student investigated the claim of biotransmutation that elements are transmuted (i.e., changed from one element to another) in the process of biological growth. This claim is usually justified on the basis of comparisons of the elemental composition of seeds and plants grown from seeds, and differences of only a few percent are typically used to defend the phenomenon. Using calcium as the target species, the student determined the calcium concentration in the seeds of a fast-growing plant, Brassica rapa, by atomic absorption spectrometry after a closed-container acid digestion in Teflon. Attempting to keep contamination to a minimum, she grew the seeds until they were fully germinated (root system and buds) on filter paper medium in distilled water. The calcium in the plants was then determined in a manner similar to that for the seeds. After subtracting the blanks, she found no significant difference in calcium concentration in seeds and plants, which agreed within approximately 10%. The difference could be totally attributed to uncertainty in the blanks from the acids used in the digestion. This project gave the student experience in dealing with blanks, sample preparation, and analytical errors and showed her how easy it is to make claims based on nonsignificant data. Another student investigated the miraculous appearance of a copper-based foil on the body of a Florida housewife and purported medium named Katie. The student was to develop a protocol to study the phenomenon and he consulted with a forensic chemist to develop his case study. He received foil samples collected over a several-year period, dissolved the foils in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, and compared the element “fingerprint” of the foils to determine if a pattern existed. He also planned to contact manufacturers of similar foils to determine if elemental composition data was available and to try to obtain samples of foil sold in the medium’s local area. The foil was analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to generate the elemental fingerprints, which indicated no significant difference in the foil composition during the several years of collection. The student’s experiences, particularly his interactions with the forensic chemist, motivated him to pursue a graduate career in forensic science. These projects gave students limited experience with research whose outcome could be “paradigm-shifting” and highly rewarding as well. The students were informed that the James Randi Educational Foundation (44 ) would offer more than one million dollars “to any person or persons who will demonstrate any psychic, supernatural or paranormal ability of any kind under satisfactory observing conditions”, including a demonstration that phenomena such as biotransmutation are legitimate. More significantly, the Foundation also offers annual awards for student research dealing in a scientific manner with pseudoscientific topics. Scientific Conference Attendance The annual conference of the Society for Scientific Exploration (SSE) is a unique experience. Speakers from both the scientific mainstream and the outermost fringes have equal opportunity to present their case before a receptive audience. The organization itself, founded in 1978, consists of some 1402

Figure 1. The author reproduces the experiment shown in the James Randi videotape of a psychic chemist using psychokinesis (and some exhaled CO2) to convert bromthymol blue from the blue (basic) form to the yellow (acidic) form.

400 members and publishes the Journal of Scientific Exploration, a peer-reviewed journal that focuses on the investigation of scientific anomalies. The three top students in the analytical class were invited to attend the 15th annual meeting of the SSE, held at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, VA, in late May 1996. The intent was to expose them to credible looking and sounding scientists espousing both conventional and fringe beliefs, and test their ability to use critical thinking skills to distinguish the rational from the ridiculous. Topics included homeopathy, UFOs and alien abductions, precognition, psychokinesis, alternative healing practices, and more. Prior to the conference, all three students described themselves as “skeptical” in nature. One asserted that only “nut cases” believe in UFOs and psychic phenomena; another felt the conference topics to be an affront to a conservative upbringing. Some of the speakers reinforced those opinions, whereas others made them realize that very intelligent people believe quite reasonably in unusual things. The students reserved their harsher criticisms for an unconventional medical device that was intended to improve blood circulation, noting that the control group was inadequate and the experiments were performed on an irregular schedule, allowing for data selection. They were even more critical of a speaker who related the discovery of a “three-dimensional, dynamic geometric pattern” that was described as the “pattern of love” and that “held the key to energy and other scientific revolutions.” They were struck with the nonscience of the issues, the lack of plausible evidence (“facts” based purely on conjecture), and an obvious interference of personal beliefs with the ideas presented. Harsh criticism was also meted out to a talk advocating structural features on Mars (the Mars face and pyramids) as evidence for extraterrestrial life. While these topics were easy for the students to dismiss, they found it far more difficult to critique controversial topics that were professionally presented. Even though the extraordinary claims behind homeopathy had been explained to them, their opinions varied on a presentation by the Director of the NIH Office of Alternative Medicine. One student noted that the study of homeopathic dilutions was careful and well controlled, and wondered why major journals would not publish the manuscript. At the conclusion of the conference, the students were asked to write an essay describing their reactions to specific presentations and the conference in general. One student clearly understood the purpose behind including discussions



of bad science into an academic curriculum. She noted that the reason was “to learn to recognize holes in a faulty analysis, but also to develop an open mind toward slightly radical ideas that we might encounter during our scientific careers, and respect those ideas if they appear to hold some scientific validity. At the end of the conference, I found myself considering the possibility that I might be wrong about some beliefs I strongly held.” Conclusions and Other Information Sources Besides the specific references given, there are a number of general references that I have found useful in preparing topics for classroom use. The list is certainly not comprehensive and there are many other good references. Included in the list are books dealing with scientific literacy and the scientific method, as well as compilations of bad science (38, 53–60), innumeracy (61), use and misuse of statistics (62), bad science in the courtroom (63), scientific fraud (64), mysteries of science (65), and ancient alchemy (66, 67). Adler’s critical view of uncontrolled environmentalism, published in 1973 (68), provides a unique opportunity for students to examine a number of case studies of environmental skepticism (DDT, lead, and mercury pollution) with 25 years of hindsight. Periodicals that I have found useful are the Skeptical Inquirer (69), published by the Council for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), and Skeptic Magazine (70), published by the Skeptics Society. The Journal of Scientific Exploration (71), published by the Society for Scientific Exploration, is also a good source for both skeptical and credulous articles on anomalous scientific claims. An unbiased review of the past and current literature dealing with scientific anomalies is maintained by the Sourcebook Project, which publishes a series of books including Science Frontiers (72). One of the best sources of information is the WWW, but since URLs change often, I will list only a few of the best and most stable locations. Skeptical information about pseudo-scientific claims can be found on the CSICOP page (73) and the Skeptic Society page (74). An excellent source of information on scientific ethics is maintained by Tissue (75). And finally, the Bad Chemistry page (76 ) and the Bad Science page (77) deal with well-understood phenomena that are persistently presented incorrectly by teachers and writers. These include “the hydrophobic effect”, “the theory of ice skating is all wet”, and “ionic solutions don’t look like that”. Although there was some synchronicity involved in the availability of the SSE conference for exposing the students to real scientists doing bad science, other approaches can be used. There are numerous skeptic groups (see ref 73 for the International Network of Skeptical Organizations) that hold monthly meetings, often featuring speakers on topics related to bad science. Such groups typically have a number of scientists who are available to speak to a class on relevant topics. I have used the resources of the National Capital Area Skeptics (78) to invite speakers on topics such as “Luck, Coincidence, and Chance: Why We Should Expect the Unlikely” (79). The final goal of this exercise was not only to teach chemistry, but also to help the students develop critical thinking skills by gradually exposing them to bad science, from examples and demonstrations to experiments and presentations by professional scientists with radical ideas. Examples

of bad science can be a powerful teaching tool, serving as a catalyst for active learning, which is often elusive in physical science courses. Acknowledgment I wish to express my gratitude to a number of colleagues who provided references and information concerning the many unusual topics discussed in this paper. These include Walter Rowe, Walter Hearn, James “The Amazing” Randi, Becky Long, Ray Hyman, Chip Denman, and Joe Himes. Thanks are also owed to the three Journal of Chemical Education reviewers for their excellent suggestions. Special gratitude is due to Danny Miles, Acting Head of the Science Department during the 1996 Spring semester, whose patience and advice greatly helped a neophyte adjunct professor. And special thanks are also owed to three students from the Spring 1996 class in analytical chemistry, Maggie Bullard, Robin Kloster, and Brad Buehler, who accompanied me to the SSE conference in Charlottesville, VA, and wrote essays describing their experiences. Their enthusiasm gave me the motivation to write this manuscript. Literature Cited NOTE: Since some of these references are rather obscure, interested persons may contact me for information about obtaining copies by post or by e-mail: [email protected]. 1. Kovac, J. J. Chem. Educ. 1996, 73, 926. 2. Kovac, J. The Ethical Chemist: Case Studies in Scientific Ethics; University of Tennessee: Knoxville, TN, 1995. 3. Kovac, J. J. Chem. Educ. 1991, 68, 907. 4. Zaugg, H. Chem Matters 1987, 5(4), 10. 5. Taubes, G. Bad Science: The Short Life and Weird Times of Cold Fusion, Random House: New York, 1993. 6. Allison, F. Phys. Rev. 1927, 30, 66. 7. Thomas, T.; Wilhelm, K. Year of the Cloud; Doubleday: Garden City, NY, 1970. 8. Schick, T., Jr.; Vaughn, L. How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age; Mayfield: Mountain View, CA, 1995; p 209. 9. Franks, F. Polywater; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 1981. 10. Rousseau, D. L. Am. Sci. 1992, 80, 54. 11. Close, F. Cold Fusion: Too Hot to Handle: The Race for Cold Fusion; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, 1991. 12. Grant, P.; Whipple, R.; Andresen, B. J. Forensic Sci. 1995, 40, 18. 13. Zumdahl, S. Chemistry; 3rd ed.; D.C. Heath: Lexington, MA, 1993. 14. Goldfarb, B. Chem Matters 1991, 9(4), 8. 15. Kervan, L. Biological Transmutations and their Applications in Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Ecology, Medicine, Nutrition, Agriculture, Geology; Swan House: New York, 1972. 16. Bounias, M. J. Sci. Exploration 1993, 7, 443. 17. Goldfein, S. Energy Development from Elemental Transmutations in Biological Systems; Report 2247, U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command: Ft. Belvoir, VA, 1978. 18. Epstein, M. S. J. Sci. Exploration 1993, 7, 446. 19. Hearn, W. R. Skeptical Inquirer 1992, 17(1), 93. 20. Wood, R. Nature 1904, 70, 530. 21. Langmuir, I. Phys. Today 1989, 42(10), 36. 22. Ashmore, M. Social Studies Sci. 1993, 23, 67. 23. Epstein, M. SAS Spectrum 1996, 23(1), 32. 24. Stark, N. H. The First Practical Pyramid Book: Free Energy for Beauty, Health, Gardening, Food Dehydration, and Meditation; Sheed Andrews and McMeel: Kansas City, MO, 1977.


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Using Bad Science To Teach Good Chemistry - American Chemical

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