Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale - ACS Publications

Chapter 6

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Critical Water Issues in Africa Shem O. Wandiga* Department of Chemistry, College of Biological and Physical Sciences, School of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya *E-mail: [email protected].

Water scarcity, purity and delivery have become major challenges of humanity especially in Africa. Globally 748 million and in Africa 325 million people lack access to safe water. Water diseases kill 842,000 people annually. The majority of those who lack water live in rural areas. Africa is second to Australia in dryness but is home to 15% of global human population and has only nine percent of global renewable water resources. Most of Africa’s surface water has become polluted by human activities and its wells are becoming dry. Impacts of climate change and climate variability are making water scarcity more stressful. Technologies used for water harnessing are outmoded and inefficient. Africa needs to modernize its water purification technology; it requires adopting new methods like roof, pavement and urban water catchment to recharge its declining ground water level. Provision of safe drinking water policy need to change from piped water to every home to supply of point of use technologies at every home. There exist some potential new technologies that still require further research. The chapter highlights some recent development of nanoscience materials in water treatment that give promise to future trends. Similarly, small scale water harnessing technologies are outlined for ground water recharge and drinking water purification. Design of water education in Africa is reviewed and specific steps for improvement given.

© 2015 American Chemical Society In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Introduction Safe drinking water and sanitation are the major challenges in Africa. Water is essential for life but in Africa it is also the major challenge for safe living. Substantial amount of resources is spent to find it in space and to establish that life can exist in other planets besides our earth. Unfortunately, when we have it we take it for granted; abuse it by polluting it or using it extravagantly. Access to safe water is one of the leading global challenges in this century. Globally 748 million people lack access to it, it kills 842,000 people every year and 82% of those who lack it live in the rural areas of the world with only 18% living in urban areas. In Africa 325 million people lack access to safe water (1, 2). Today, most sources of water in Africa have high loads of soil sediments, human wastes and chemical pollutants. The sources of water in the continent is mainly from its 63 shared water basins, six major aquifers and more than 160 inland lakes (2) larger than 27km (2). The surface water sources supply 173 million people with their daily water needs. However, Africa has large areas of desert, arid and semi arid lands. It is second to Australia in dryness, it has 15 percent of global population and only 9 percent of global renewable water resources (1). In the dry areas water sources are mainly from ground water, sand beds of perennial rivers, springs, and manmade dams and pans. Source of potable water is mainly boreholes (24 percent) in rural areas that are increasingly becoming unreachable and piped water (39 percent) in urban areas serving mainly the middle and upper class dwellers. About 37 percent use untreated water for drinking that cause diarrheal diseases and other water born diseases (2). Examples of sources of water are shown in Figures 1-6 below:

Figure 1. Water pan in Bondo Sub-county, Kenya showing shared water usage. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga. 96 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


The continent’s water availability is unevenly distributed and follows more closely the ecological zones and some international boundaries. For example equatorial Central Africa tropical zone has 50.66 percent of available water while Northern Africa has only 2.99 percent (3). Climate variability and climate change has contributed significantly to water scarcity and non-availability. Africa therefore relies heavily on its ground water that represent only 15 percent of total renewable water resources that supplies about 75 percent of its population with drinking water (3). The impacts of climate change and climate variability combined with fast increasing human population projects a diminishing supply of safe water in the future. For example, it is projected that 25 African countries will be water stressed by 2025 compared to 13 in 1995 (3). Inadequate financial resources and institutional arrangements portray a situation that will continue to get worse in the coming years. The big gap in technological knowledge between African states and developed nations and low political will to prioritize water challenges are not likely to make the improvement of water quality, improved sanitation, reduced industrial and irrigation applications any better at present or in future Africa.

Figure 2. Kowuor Water Pan, Nyangoma Division Bondo Sub-county, Kenya. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga.

Economic losses caused by water in the continent are large. Africa’s GDP is suppressed by 5% due to lack of sanitation infrastructure, 2% due to power outages, between 5%-25% due to drought and floods whose figure may go higher when future impacts of climate change and climate variability are taken into account (3). Investment potential in water services is huge as amount needed to improve Africa water situation is US $50 billion per annum for the period from 2010 to 2030 and US$ 30 billion for the following 30 years (3). 97 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


This chapter examines the critical water issues in the continent along the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) water targets: soil and water conservation and management, improved water harvesting technologies, improving drinking water purification technologies, new technological innovations for sanitation, mobilization of communities in improvement of health and hygiene and framework for the design for education in water.

Figure 3. River Yala: Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology abstraction Point. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga.

Figure 4. Shallow well point of water. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga. 98 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Figure 5. Nairobi River, showing human waste pollution. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga.

Figure 6. Settled pond water separated from particulates for multipurpose use. Photo taken by Prof. Shem Wandiga.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Water Challenges A. Water Targets Sub-Sahara Africa has made small progress in achieving the improved drinking water MDG target. Since access to piped water in every home has stagnated at about 16 percent between 1990 and 2012 (2) it is unlikely that it will change much post 2015 unless we adopt new technologies. Two out of five people in Sub-Sahara Africa lack access to improved drinking water sources (2). Increasing population combined with declining surface water sources due to 99 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


climate change and climate variability require a change of approach in catchment, storage and purification technologies for supply of safe drinking water. It is most unlikely that piped water with concomitant high engineering costs will yield the desired outcome in the second phase of development. Other water harvesting, storage and purification technologies need to be promoted given the fact that the amount of rainfall has not changed and will remain the same. However, the pattern of rainfall and duration of rainfall has changed and will continue to change.

B. Soil and Water Conservation and Management Water catchment technologies that capture roof water and storm run-offs and store it have been implemented in other countries and need to be adopted and improved in Africa to safely use such water for drinking, irrigation and household chores. Presently these technologies are ignored and not used enough in many of the African communities. Catchment of roof and storm water and storing it in large tanks above ground or underground offer many advantages such as no mineral additives in the water, ease of delivery and allow recharge of water aquifers so that ground water table rises as opposed to its rapid decline (4–6). Secondly, ground water filtration improves quality by eliminating impurities. The construction of shallow wells and deep wells with high recharge rate enhance community’s access to drinking water (7). Three technologies exist for water catchment. The first is the installation of roof water tanks beside the built environment (5, 6). One square meter of roof harvests one liter of water for every one millimeter of rainfall. A simple roof of a house can thus fill a tank of 225,000 cubic meters every season. Harvesting similar amount twice a year is possible. The harvested amount can see the average household of 7 through the dry seasons (4). The second technology is the building of sand dams along perennial rivers to slow down the rate of river flow and allow the water to percolate through the sand into ground water on the upper side of the sand dam (5, 6), and the third technology that is least preferred is the building of earthen dams to form reservoirs or ponds that can collect surface water from hills. Such dams are used by both animals and human (see Figure 1 above). They can be sources of zoonotic diseases transfer. Secondly they accumulate dirt, have high evaporation rate and become sites for algal and broad weeds habitat (5). Urban water collection has great potential for ecological system improvement and ground water recharge. Run-offs from roads or pavement areas can be channeled into reservoirs or underground storage ponds that will improve plant growth and ensure seasonal pastures for animals. Building plastic ponds of 120 meter cubed made of plastic and ropes enable small scale irrigation of crops. Lastly improved rainwater/soil conservation technologies like Zai or tassa and stone rows and half moon allow soil to retain water for crop growth (7–9). The choice of the technology is dependent on government policy for community support as initial investment is needed for the poor communities. Technology works best where there is strong community participatory approaches to farming, depends on the nature of the innovation being promoted and the topology and soil type. Construction of large dams works best when done between 100 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


hills. However construction of stone rows (7) can be done on plains or slopes. Stone walls are placed at distances of 0-10 cm, 10-20 cm and 20-40cm depths along the slope and may be arranged in rows or half-moon configuration. Water together with nutrients are retained upstream of the stone wall. Zai or tassa (7) is the technology of digging planting pits in the farm area, mixing the soil with manure or fertilizer (use of farm yard manure is preferred) and planting seeds in the pit. Watering is done using sprinkler as one would do in flat row planting (9–11). Widespread use and government support of soil and water conservation and management will improve soil carbon content, crop yields, resilience to drought and reduce undernutrion. Some of the above technologies are widely practiced in Ethiopia, Bukina Faso, Mali, Senegal and Niger in Africa and Nicaragua and Brazil in South America for example. However, government policies are lagging behind the efforts of researchers and NGOs workers’ efforts (11, 12).

C. Improved Drinking Water Purification Technologies Provision of safe drinking water in the African household has proven to be intractable using the prevailing technologies of water supply. In many instances there is not sufficient water for pumping. Where water exists in abundance there is lack of resources or appropriate technology to distribute it to every home. Maintenance is a major bottleneck in many communities where water has been supplied. Many efforts have been expended in sinking and development of boreholes in rural Africa. Most of the boreholes are abandoned because of lack of knowledge, maintenance resources or spare parts and lack of ownership. The many boreholes built and uncontrolled water withdrawals have succeeded in lowering the water table to an extent that reaching water table has become expensive. Therefore there is need for a paradigm shift from providing piped water to every home in the rural areas to providing technology for water purification at the point of use. For us to realize success in this area the technology needs to meet the following criteria: be cost effective, acceptable and affordable, must meet the agreed standards, provide sufficient output, and comply with health concerns, social concerns and scalable and link up with industry. Every consumer must be empowered with the capacity to measure water quality at the point of use. Assessing water quality at various levels is important for water security. Today, there is no dearth of new technologies in the market. Across the world, companies have researched on and introduced various technologies in the areas ranging from water monitoring to water treatment. However, a lot of these technologies are either too cost prohibitive in the African scenario or do not cater to the nuances of the African market. These technologies require a testing ground to review both the relevance and the efficacy of the solution. Also it has to go beyond the technical or technological aspects and address the social aspects of adoption of such innovations. There is need to identify barriers to the uptake of the technology specifically in terms of contextual determinants and which are a central reason for low adoption 101 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


rates of beneficial health technologies in developing countries. For instance, the impact of technology and treatment interventions for safe drinking water in homes intrinsically depends upon household decision -making, specifically, how women’s preferences, welfare and opportunity cost of time are captured in the decisions. For example, differences in men’s and women’s costs and preferences related to a lack of access to safe drinking water can affect household choices depending on women’s “say” or power over household decisions. Social innovation and applied research is required in the following areas: First, develop affordable and safe drinking water solutions at the household level. The emphasis is on affordability, which is the primary reason why many of the available technologies are not acceptable. Several Grand Challenges have to be taken up in the years to come to get solutions around the African continent such that every citizen is empowered with clean water, conforming to standards. As input water in various parts of the country (12) varies, technologies offered must be adaptable to those regional requirements. The role of advanced materials and nanotechnology enabled solutions cannot be over emphasized in this context. Second, real time water quality monitoring at various levels, linked through wireless networks is an urgent need. While several sensors exist currently, they are either expensive or do not cover all parameters of importance or do not work at concentrations of relevance. Third, quality of drinking water sources must be known online, at least to enforcement agencies, nationally. These sensors, especially for micro-organisms, and toxins such as arsenic and fluoride, must be deployable at schools, community facilities and large dwellings, besides large water sources. Affordable sensors for essential water quality parameters are expected to become part of water purifiers in the years to come. At the same time, colorimetric test strips for quality parameters could be made available for consumers. The mission of this exercise is to empower everyone the right to know his/her water quality. Nanotechnology research is moving very fast. Candidate materials most commonly mentioned involved nanofiltration, the germicidal efficiency of nanosilver and the photo catalytic degradation power of nanotitanium. In our research we recently published (13) the results of Titanium (IV) oxide Tungsten (VI) oxide composite. “The research findings appeared on world’s prestigious International Journal of Photo catalysis. This work focused on synthesis of Titanium (IV) Oxide and Tungsten (VI) Oxide composite and testing the composite as a photo catalyst in deactivation of Escherichia coli in water. Modified wet chemistry method was used and the synthesized nanoparticles calcined at 575° C, taken through X-Ray fluorescence and X-Ray diffraction. The result showed a particle size diameter of 18.99nm. The nanoparticles photo catalytic inactivation efficacy of Escherichia coli in water was tested. 3M Petri films from 3M Microbiology Products, U.S.A., were used for Escherichia coli colony forming units’ counts. ATUV 8W G8 T5 lamp from PHILIPS emitting between 350-600nm was used as energy source. The catalyst reduced Escherichia coli count by log 3.415 at an optimum catalyst amount of 0.75 g/L at pH 7.3 using the Chick-Watson model for disinfection kinetics. This work proved that photo catalysis is a promising technology in water purification with possible and practical opportunities existing especially for small-scale point-of-use water purification 102 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


units where potable water could be treated for disinfection of pathogens or trace priority pollutants remaining in water distribution network after conventional treatment methods. This work proved that nano particles can provide solutions in treatment of drinking water especially for poor communities living in the tropics. Although a lot has been done on photo catalytic decomposition of pollutants in water, this work went further to explore the potential of simple composite synthesized using locally available and abundant (TiO2) resource in Kenya. The composite was synthesized using fairly mild conditions and later tested for water purification applications using Escherichia coli in natural water samples collected from the environment as opposed to lab cultured strains. The experiments proved that the titanium (IV) oxide- Tungsten (VI) oxide composite can be effectively used in the removal of microbial pollutants from water. The results indicated a negligible Escherichia coli reduction rate variation to acid conditions. From the data obtained significant disinfection was not observed for the dark control (photo catalyst only with no UV), UVA irradiation alone (in the absence of photo catalyst) or with the sample stirred in the presence of photo catalyst. Process taking place during dark control was explained as adsorption-desorption of the Escherichia coli from the surface of the photo catalyst. Photo catalysis is a promising technology in water purification with possible and practical opportunities existing for small-scale point-of-use water purification units where potable water could be treated for disinfection of pathogens or trace priority pollutants remaining in (or entering) the water distribution network following conventional treatment; for example, chlorine-resistant pathogens, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Our earlier work (unpublished) showed that our photo catalyst composite was effective in removal of heavy metals and organochlorine pesticides which are some of the pollutants that are not removed by chlorination. The green reactions of photo catalysis are ideal in energy saving and emission reductions. This work focused on exploring the potential of nanoparticle photo catalysis in use for water purification. Escherichia coli was used as model bacteria to explore disinfection kinetics of the nanocomposites used and the optimum working conditions of pH, initial catalyst amount and time factors. The findings can be applied to point-of-use water purification especially for poor communities living in the tropics where solar energy can be harvested and harnessed to effect pathogen removal. The major limitation in this work was the subsequent requirement to filter the nanoparticles after each test. This is due to the fact that the tests were performed with dispersed and stirred nanoparticles in water. Anchoring procedure for the nanoparticles on immobilized support will be undertaken later. From the findings of this research work, it is recommended that policy makers take into consideration the potential contributions of scientific research into policy implementation in water purification processes. In Kenya, the right to clean drinking water is embedded in the constitution as a right to every citizen. This can only be realized if clean and energy efficient technologies are adopted and incorporated into policies that guide water purification and distribution. The relevant Kenya Government research funding bodies should work with research institutions through funding water purification research, and coordinate the implementation of research findings to target communities. 103 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


D. New Technological Innovations for Sanitation Integrated water management requires use of surface, ground, grey and storm water in a well planned system. The planning starts with the mobilization of the community to agree to work and plan their residential areas or urban centers such that there are specifically designated areas for residence, farming, animals, water reservoirs, playground and other infrastructures like roads and energy generation. The waste from each designated area is integrally used in the generation of safe water and energy through biogas system or solar energy generation system. Well designed drainage system does not allow blockage during rainy season, but provides conduits for free flow of storm and grey water to its storage tank, similarly river water is channeled to its storage tank. With well recharged aquifer, ground water can be added from a well to the surface and storm water tanks. The roof catchment water is filtered through sand and charcoal and stored in a separate storage tank (9, 12). The grey water is used for energy production, storm, surface and ground water is for agriculture and rain water is for drinking. A schematic of a possible integrated water supply and sanitation system for a future development of Arua, Uganda is given in the report (9) on storm water reference (9) page 8. Small homesteads can use the same planning principle to develop a safe sanitary system. However, for rural Africa the digging of pit latrines will continue to play a major role in providing safe sanitation (9). I describe below one of our studies (12) in a typical rural community in Kenya: The purpose of the study (14–16) was to establish the relationship between the water quality challenges, community health and water rights conditions. Health challenges have been linked to water quality and household income. About 69% of the households have no access to treated water. Whereas 92% of the respondents appear to be aware that treatment of water prevents water borne diseases, the lowest income group and children share a high burden of water borne diseases requiring hospitalization and causing mortality. Open defecation (12.3%) in these areas contributes to high incidence of water borne diseases, especially in the rainy season. The community’s constitutional rights to quality water in adequate quantities are most infringed. Increased investment in water provision across studied sites, improved sanitation and availability of affordable point of use water purification systems will have major positive impact on the health and economic well being of the community. Water quality still presents a serious problem to Lake Victoria riparian communities. Since several initiatives put in place are not having the desired impact of and saving lives, there is a need for all stakeholders to rethink the approaches that have been used in water quality management at the point of use. Most desirable would be initiatives that work through community sensitization and capacity building. The overall objective of this project was to mobilize and train the local communities on water quality at the point of use and sensitize individuals on their water rights as provided for in the Kenya Constitution, 2010. The awareness created is expected to improve well being, create income generation opportunities and reduce poverty of the people. 104 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Water rights of the people living in the area under study have not been met is a fact. However, under the new constitutional dispensation, the responsibility for this state of affairs and the solutions lie with the National Government, the County government and the community themselves. The study was conducted in Bondo sub-county, Siaya District, Kenya. It was stratified as follows: Lake region (up to 10 km inwards from the lake shore), River Yala region (up to 10 km south of the river), and Middle region (area between Lake and River regions above). Results indicated that the major sources of potable water in the area under study are: Lake Region, - lake water at 55.3%, River Yala region tap water at 47.4% and Middle region, tap water at 29.2%. A total of 30.6% in all the three regions is connected to tap water with the other 69.4% sourcing their water from alternative sources. The first ranked issue of concern to the residents of the River Yala region is availability of water. The region is predominantly supplied by reticulated water from Siaya and Bondo Water and Sanitation Co. Ltd. (SIBO), and it is clear from the importance attached to this issue by the respondents that the piped water supply is inadequate. Besides availability, quality and affordability are also issues in this region. In the Lake region water quality is the major issue followed by availability, access, and affordability which are also made worse by household distance from the lake. Meeting the right to quality water in adequate quantities as enshrined in the constitution is a serious challenge as the legislative framework as outlined in the Constitution makes water and sanitation a shared function between the County Governments and the National Government. Clear demarcation of duties and functions is being prepared and anticipated in the revised Water Act yet to be tabled in Parliament. Provision of the necessary legislation and policy to guide the distribution and use of water is the responsibility of the National government. The study found that the source of water is not a significant determinant of water borne diseases (16). This implies that all sources have low water quality. The lowest income group and children share a high burden of water borne disease. 64% of the hospitalized cases are from those earning between US$ 0 and US$2.5 as constitute 60% of those who lost their lives. 82% of those affected were children between the ages of 5 and 15. This is a serious challenge as water borne diseases are known to cause nutrition imbalances and mental retardation. The community can play a pivotal role in reversing this situation by improving knowledge and awareness about diseases related to water quality, availability and management. Actions that should be taken include, volunteering to attend training and sensitization meetings and workshops, taking their children to school and implementing recommendations from the various trainings meetings. Analysis of data shows that over 69% of the households have no access to treated water. The water drawn for community use in general may require some form of treatment to eliminate the disease causing microorganisms. Significant differences were found in the number of deaths between the group that often treats water and the group that never treats water. Stringent measures and awareness campaigns need to be put in place to improve sanitation in the district and eliminate negative practices such as open defecation. 105 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Improvement of water quality will have a major and positive impact on the poor. The WHO report (17) (2008) clearly demonstrates that poor water quality, sanitation and hygiene cause more deaths in Kenya than malaria and other Millennium Development Goal (MDG) diseases (17). An increased investment in water will serve the interest of all as well as meet the constitutional requirement for rights to water and sanitation. The existing situation can be improved through further engagement of communities in the area in capacity building for service providers, community health workers and the community itself. Other measures addressing the public health dynamics, such as creating awareness on the importance of hygienic practices through notice boards in public places communicating about diseases and general health ensuring access to hand washing facilities will also go far in ensuring the community ownership of water and sanitation issues in the Sub-County. Based on the findings of this study and the conclusions made, it was noted that improvement of water quality will have a major positive socio-economic and health impact on the poor. In order to make this a reality, the following recommendations are proposed: Reticulated tap water supply along the river region by SIBO be enhanced and extended to the middle region to improve availability, affordability, access and quality; given the fact that the Lake Victoria region will require extra unavailable financial resources to develop new and maintain existing reticulated supplies for household water, it is critical that in the meantime a new policy be instituted to encourage and establish point of use water purification systems; The County government provides improved sanitation systems in the Sub-County to cover all users and awareness and education campaigns is needed to sensitize the community on the dangers of untreated water and poor sanitation, to create ownership of the infrastructure that supplies water to the community and to build the capacity of the community members empowering them in the management of the existing water resources.

Framework for the Design of Education and Outreach Programs In the recent times many institutions have focused attention on what needs to be done to improve the water challenges in Africa. Several Science-Policy Interface Conferences/Workshops have been held over the past decade in Africa. The scope and reach of such activities have ranged from continental, sub-regional, national and sub-national in scale. The participants have included policy and decision maker, scientists, civil society, media and end users. Consequently, the African water Science Agenda has been well cross-pollinated and articulated to address real needs. Some of the key topical issues that have been considered include scientific assessment of Africa’s water resources and systems; research and technology to assess and monitor water related disasters (with emphasis on floods) and knowledge and technology to improve water quality, quantity and availability. At the Africa Union-NEPAD 2007 conference (18) the following 106 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


research and development topics were considered: flood control: acquire, modify and apply the technologies; develop technologies for improving quality; develop technologies to increase the supply of water to African households; research on and development of desalination technologies, with emphasis on small modular units that use low and renewable energy; research on and related technology development for treating and supplying drinking water from aquifers; research and application of knowledge on eutrophication - develop new technologies to address eutrophication related problems. Similarly the below outreach challenges were highlighted at the Scientific Conference (19) on Water Management Issues in Africa, 28-31 March 2012: Providing safe drinking water; ensure access to adequate sanitation; provide water for food security; prevent land degradation and water pollution; meeting growing water demand; manage water under global climate change; develop hydropower to enhance energy security; and enhance capacity to address water challenges. The outreach scales considered have included: LARGE SCALE: Regional and sub-regional systems (e.g. trans-boundary rivers and aquifers) and large scale supply/sanitation systems and infrastructures (cities, cross-border transfers, large dams, large scale irrigation); INTERMEDIATE SCALE: Sub-national or small trans-boundary systems (e.g. in-country large river/lake basins, water towers) and smaller supply/sanitation systems and infrastructure (e.g. towns, medium-sized dams, medium scale irrigation) and SMALL SCALE: local systems (e.g. small river/lake basins, localized groundwater aquifers) and local supply/sanitation systems and infrastructures (e.g. rural water supplies, small dams, small-scale irrigation).

Extending Technologies through Outreach (Improving Water Availability) Micro-agricultural Water Management (Micro-AWM) (20) refers to the large set of small-scale technologies and practices such as low-cost water lifting technologies (for example treadle pumps), low-cost water application technologies (e.g., drip irrigation kits), technologies to capture and store rainwater either in small reservoirs or in the root zone (rainwater harvesting), and conservation tillage and other soil nutrient and water conservation technologies. These technologies have great potential, and there are also disappointing cautionary cases; but no examples of adoption on a sufficiently large scale as to make a significant national impact in Africa as in contrast to South Asia. Examples of local success stories are KickStart’s programs for manufacturing and marketing treadle pumps in Kenya and Tanzania – some 45,000 treadle pumps were sold by 2006 in what may be the best example of scaling up; positive impacts of treadle pumps in reducing poverty in Malawi and Ghana. “Low-cost irrigation pumps increase farmer’s net farm income by nearly 10 times (20).”

107 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Extending Technologies through Outreach (Promoting Water Security and Data Acquisition) SMART WATER SYSTEMS (SWS). Smart water metering (21) refers to a system that measures water consumption or abstraction and communicates that information in an automated fashion for monitoring and billing purposes. It presents a new approach to promote water security with uncertain but significant future risks from population growth, hydrological variability and extreme events, and intensifying water allocation demands across water supply, agriculture, industry and ecosystems. Having launched M-PESA in 2007, the Kenyan mobile network operator Safaricom is the global mobile-banking leader, with more than 13 million users and 22,000 retail agents. By coupling mobile banking and smart water metering, SWS can create a secure, transparent and low-cost flow of funds and information between consumer, water service provider and delivery system. Such technological innovations measure water use on daily time-steps and relay packets of data to a central database to alert water point failure and trigger response, integrate into mobile-payment/billing models, establish and monitor new Service Level Agreements and performance based contracts with private-sector Rural Water Service Providers, and provide a national database of water points, volumetric use and performance metrics to improve sector transparency and accountability. If developed will greatly improve water delivery and trade.

Extending Technologies through Outreach (Sand Dams) Small-scale Sand dams (5–7) (Figure 7) at the household or village level—offer considerable potential for mitigating drought. The SASOL Foundation (6) has constructed in excess of 500 sand dams in Kitui District in Kenya. These illustrate elegant micro-technologies at its simplest. With low maintenance costs and a lifetime of 50 years, the potential of sand dams for improving livelihoods is proven and the technology is entirely domestic. Sand dams are especially suited to crystalline basement rocks, which cover much of Kenya, and are a sound climate change adaptation strategy in arid and semi-arid areas. The assessment of WASH technologies (22) that have been tried and the level of their success shows that very few of them have been successful. It is obvious that not all have met the criteria for judgment. Additional work still remains to be done. The challenges that face the African communities in providing safe drinking water and sanitation are compounded by the loss of its trained manpower. Loss of university academics to industry due to comparatively low academic salaries - “one lecturer has the potential to graduate 50 to 70 students” continues to deny the continent the potential to make breakthrough in new innovations. Unlike the United Kingdom and other countries, much of South Africa’s leading water-related expertise (including its research capacity) lies outside of the public sector, which includes semi-public institutions. It is concentrated in private sector consultancies, as the state and its affiliates contract a considerable amount of work out to the private sector. Because these data and reports are seen as saleable assets, the 108 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


consultancies are less likely to make them freely available to other researchers and organizations, in contrast to the practice by government departments or the national research councils. Private consultancies are also smaller than research institutions, which contributes to the problem of critical mass.

Figure 7. Sand dam under construction in Sakai, Makueni, Kenya. Photo taken by Prof. Dan Olago.

Other challenges facing Africa include variable monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems that may be classified as: strong, intermediate and weak (23). Typically, the weak countries have systems that are project-based and fragmented, have little capacity to gather, analyze and report, lack national frameworks for M&E, and suffer from a paucity of demand for the information they offer. Intermediate M&E systems have substantial weaknesses that are recognized as such and are being upgraded over time. Even within those few countries considered to have strong M&E systems, however, there are failings that undermine monitoring and the use of information in sector planning and management. Generally there is the lack of demand for information by management that is typically inexperienced in the use of management information systems (MIS). As a result, water resources information in these countries is typically fragmented, unreliable and out-of-date. In a single country it is common to see a variety of indicators and methods of data collection used to measure the same parameter, which renders comparative analysis impossible. No country has been identified as having a functional central sector-wide database and/or MIS, although Senegal is building one and Uganda is rehabilitating its own (22). Low “water awareness” amongst the communities, lack of adequate finance to roll out programs and lack of adequate finance and skills to support maintenance of existing water systems is common features in most countries. 109 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


What Can Be Done To Promote Education? To promote water knowledge: the Africa Water Facility (24) 2012-2016 Strategic Plan allocates 15% of its budget to the design and implementation of information systems or "monitoring and evaluation" systems to serve the needs of the water sector and to the development of knowledge products, for wiser use and management of water resources and better decision making at national, regional and trans-boundary levels. If skilled and talented people are not attracted to the water sector, then technological innovation cannot happen. Institutions should be orientated so that practical innovations and participatory design and implementation of programs are nurtured and encouraged. The regulatory and policy framework in the continent and respective countries needs to be clear and unambiguous with respect to innovation and community involvement in the sector. The countries should build and harmonize solutions-oriented databases. Partnering with industry – joint projects, student attachments; partnering with Civil Society, NGOs and Community Based Organizations, recognition of actions required at different scales and setting up of coordinated networks and institutions to address the issues at appropriate scales, building and harmonizing solutions-oriented databases and provision of adequate funding through Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) will make some marked difference.

Conclusions Water is quintessential resource that must be given highest priority by governments, communities and private sector in Africa and the rest of the world bodies. Challenges facing safe water and sanitation provisions in Africa are enormous and will not be solved by governments. Multi faceted approach is required. Development of new and emerging technologies that include nanoscience and nanotechnologies may contribute to water purification at point of use. Coupling such technologies with Information and Computing Technologies will produce real time data that can be used by decision and policy makers for individual and community safety. The challenges caused by climate change and climate variability require that Africa adopts rain catchment and rain harvesting technologies as urgently as possible. Application of ecosystem based approaches for adaptation to climate change is highly recommended. Cooperation at national, inter river basin and regional levels is the most appropriate approach to solving water basin wide issues. Such issues include water pollution, resource use, legalization and harmonization of legal frameworks. Cooperation between countries and counties will help solve water challenges. Lastly, provision of quality training of young people in all areas of required expertise at different levels of education and incetivization of trained personnel is a must for the continent.


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