Water Resources, Water Scarcity Challenges, and ... - ACS Publications

Chapter 10

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Water Resources, Water Scarcity Challenges, and Perspectives Yehuda Shevah* H.G.M. Consulting Engineers and Planners Ltd, 7 Giborey Israel Street, Netanya 425407, Israel *E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]. Tel.: +972-73-7903900. Fax: 972-9-8649805.

The continuously growing global water scarcity and the evidences for climatic changes require a refocus on reliable and sustainable water supplies, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, being the most water-deprived regions in the world. Population growth, urbanization and increasing water demand add pressure on many water resources, causing a rapid depletion and quality degradation to a degree that part of the resources may not be safe to use and cause health and environmental risks. Such adverse development is strongly apparent in the Middle East and elsewhere where global warming impacts are already apparent leading to a situation in which available water resources are depleted and deteriorated, unable to satisfy the basic needs. To provide an integrated picture of water challenges and possible solutions at global and regional scale a Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR) framework is applied to elaborate the water scarcity issue and mitigation measures with examples from the Middle East, California, India and other regions of the world facing water scarcity challenges. Reversing the trend of growing water shortages while securing basic water needs for all are a challenging and an ambitious task, but achievable provided that comprehensive and consolidated water management strategies are implemented. A comprehensive and integrated water management policy combing advanced management and conservation as well as the harnessing of nonconventional © 2015 American Chemical Society In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

water resources (water reuse and desalination), together with trans-boundary cooperation on shared water resources can provide a sound solution to the challenges posed by water scarcity as discussed in this chapter.


1. Introduction Water scarcity can be defined as a long-term condition where differences between demand and offered water resources occur (1). Water scarcity when caused by frequent droughts or human intervention magnifies the inherited uneven geographical distribution of water resources over the earth both in terms of time and location, adding to the high variability of water availability between arid and humid climates and also between different seasons of the year (2). Even where water appears to be available in sufficient quantities, it is sometimes not accessible due to lacking infrastructure, excessive costs to tap a particular resource or weak institutional arrangements hindering effective and efficient planning, financing and implementation. Thus, water scarcity can be defined as: (i) physical water scarcity, when the local demand exceeds the availability, (ii) infrastructural water scarcity, when the installed infrastructure does not satisfy demand, and (iii) institutional water scarcity, when institutions and legislation do not allow for a ‘reliable, secure and equitable supply of water (3). Water scarcity in its various forms and its impact are expected to be aggravated. Due to the global climate change, the drought episodes are projected to become more frequent with an increased intensity (4). By 2025, half of all countries worldwide will face water stress or outright shortages and by 2050, three out of four people around the globe could be affected by water scarcity (2). The projected impact of the global warming on the hydrological cycles is alarming, as in many world regions it will be no longer possible to simply satisfy water demand by increasing the abstraction from existing sources or harnessing new natural resources. The depletion and the deterioration of water resources will reduce the quantities of available resources as well as the quality because of increased pollution of water bodies. Water is needed for all human activities either directly such as for agricultural irrigation or indirectly as ‘virtual water’ referring to water found in imported agricultural products. Access to good quality water in sufficient quantity is fundamental to the daily life of every human being, the economy and the integrity and functioning of ecosystems upon which society depends. Therefore tremendous efforts are required to battle the adverse impacts of the global warming and the resulting water scarcity, The water scarcity, its causes, impacts and possible mitigation measures are being dealt in this chapter employing a Drivers-Pressures-State-ImpactsResponses (DPSIR) framework, providing an integrated picture of water 186 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


challenges at global and regional scale with examples from the Middle East, California, India and other water scarce regions. The DPSIR model has been widely applied to conceptualize cause-and-effect relationships between environmental and socio-economic conditions and trends and the thereby resulting conditions of natural resources. (5, 6) A simplified DPSIR model for water resources is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Simplified Driver-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR) model for water resources. (Adapted/reproduced from Reference (7), 2014. EU FP7 Water4India Project.)

Important driving forces include both socio-economic and environmental underlying trends such as climate change, population growth, and rapid urbanization. These trends lead to direct pressures on water resources both in terms of water quantity and quality. Pressures have direct effects on environmental resources and can be divided into (i) the natural water supply into a given system boundary (8), e.g. a river basin, and (ii) anthropogenic pollutant release and water abstraction. A growing population and changing consumption patterns going alongside an urbanization trend typically increase water demand, leading among others to pollution of water resources (2). Deterioration of the water state in terms of quantity and quality has impacts on (i) ecosystems and their capacity to provide services to societies such as natural water cleaning capacities of wetlands, and (ii) on societies suffering from water related diseases. In order to mitigate such impacts or adapt to their consequences, technological or management measures or responses have been and can be taken, as discussed in this chapter. 187 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

2. Water Scarcity - Drivers and Pressures - on the State of Water Resources


The consequences of global warming will exacerbate the problems of water management across many countries. Advanced management and institutional structures are needed to keep pace with these rapid developments in order to alleviate the impact of the identified pressures to do not exceed the water supply capacities.

Climatic Conditions and Climate Change The current and future regional and local availability of surface water and groundwater on any point of the earth are tightly linked to climatic and physic-geographic conditions such as topography and land cover and land use. Climate change affects these atmosphere-biosphere interactions and for many regions of the world severe consequences and costly adverse effects are among the most serious and important issues confronting humankind (4). IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNEP to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for mitigation and adaptation, as required to pave the way for a global, legally binding treaty on reducing greenhouse gas emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015. The IPCC Assessment Report (9) attributes the global warming phenomenon to the rising concentrations of greenhouse gases mainly resulting from the use of fossil fuels for electricity and steam production, mobility etc. The IPCC Report draws on “widespread” evidence of “substantial” climate change impacts on all continents and across the oceans and its serious effects on food crops, water supplies, human health and global species loss. The impacts of climate change are already apparent and widespread and the planet is going to be greatly impacted, in many ways. The best way to reduce global warming is by cutting down on anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (10). Many scenarios have been considered in order to slowly decrease greenhouse gases emissions including fusion energy and other solar radiation management and geoengineering technologies aiming at stabilizing the global climate, reducing global warming and fighting anthropogenic climate change (11). However, the world economy and an increasing world population require more and more energy, replacing fossil fuels with carbon dioxide-free renewable energies and energy efficiency will be long, expensive and difficult. Therefore, the interaction between the climate and the hydrologic cycle has to be evaluated with the emphasis on its profound effects on water security worldwide. Climate change will significantly magnify the direct and indirect impacts on the water cycle. The combination of changes in temperature and precipitation will exacerbate water scarcity to profoundly affect water security worldwide. The climate change would affect water availability in such a way that the arid and semi-arid regions are expected to become even drier and wet regions even wetter, 188 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


with an overall increase in variability (12). Shorter wet seasons with more intense rainfall and extended dry seasons will affect water availability, water distribution and agricultural planning and management (13). Reduced flow of storm water to the surface water bodies will adversely affect the aquatic systems, altering the hydrological cycle and eliminating wetlands and reducing the biodiversity and altering the natural functioning of the aquatic ecological systems and the surrounding oases and wetlands (14). The challenges posed by the climate change on the state of the water bodies, altering water availability, water quality and parameters critical for ecosystems cannot be over emphasized. Changing rainfall patterns will leave millions of people without dependable supplies of water for drinking, irrigation and industries. This alarming situation is recognized by many governments and international organizations and is among the main challenges being addressed in order to ensure adequate standards of living for populations worldwide (15).

3. Water Availability Based on AQUASTAT database, on a global scale, of the total amount of 2918 km3 yr.-1 of water that was available in 2007, about 69 % (2,722 km3 yr.-1) was allocated for agriculture, 19 % (734 km3 yr.-1) for industries and 12 % (462 km3 yr.-1) for municipal use (16). By the year 2010, about 26 % (986 km3 yr.-1) of the globally abstracted freshwater is groundwater and almost 70 % of this groundwater is used for irrigation (666 km3 yr.-1). The remaining groundwater is abstracted for domestic (ca. 20 %, 212 km3 yr.-1) and industrial (ca. 10 % or 108 km3 yr.-1) uses (17). As surface water resources are getting scarce, the pressure is intensified on available groundwater which plays an increasing role in providing water for various purposes. Under the business-as-usual scenario by 2030, a water deficit of 40 % is projected (WWAP 2015a). The rate of groundwater abstraction is increasing annually by 1 % to 2 %, while some 20 % of the world’s groundwater bodies are already over-exploited, limiting their capacity to act as a buffer against local water shortages (12). Nearly all of the world’s most productive farm regions – California’s Central Valley, the North China Plain, northern India, and America’s Great Plains – are overdrawing their groundwater assets. In Cyprus, one of the two most arid European countries, following Malta, the demand for water has led to over-exploitation of the aquifers, which resulted in increasing groundwater salinity. Cypriot authorities have been often compelled to tackle the problem by importing water from Greece with large tankers. Under such conditions, water stressed countries can face the problem of groundwater over-abstractions and consequent lowering of water tables and salt-water intrusion in coastal aquifers. The pressure on water resources can be estimated using the water exploitation index (WEI) which is the average annual demand for freshwater divided by the average long-term annual freshwater renewal rate (18). The WEI helps identifying those countries that have high demand in relation to their renewable resources and therefore are prone to suffer 189 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

problems of water stress. Severe water stress can occur for WEI > 40 %, which indicates strong competition for water, which does not necessarily trigger frequent water crises. Countries for which the WEI is above 20 % are considered to experience severe water stress during drought or low river-flow periods.


Water Demand The interaction of environmental and socio-economic drivers and their associated pressures define the water availability, quality and distribution in space and time. As a result of increasing population and often unsustainable developments many regions of the world face problems of water demand exceeding water supply, either constantly or during critical seasons or years of low natural water availability. Owing to the further growing population and the increase in urbanized populations, the capability to provide safe and sufficient water is a major global handicap. The world’s population grows by ca. 80 million people per year and is predicted to reach about 10 billion in 2050 (15). The growing population coupled with urbanization industrialization and increases in consumption and production would put unprecedented pressure on the diminishing freshwater resources, at much faster rate than that of population growth (2). The United Nations Environment Programme (6) in its Global Environment Outlook 5 (GEO5) identifies population and economic development as the two major socio-economic drivers that exert pressures on the quantity and quality of natural water resources. The urbanization trend in many regions of the world puts pressure on water resources through increased demand for food, animal feed and fibres (12). Thus, water scarcity in terms of quantity and quality is going to worsen due to the rise of world’s population and to the redistribution of water recourses among the world’s regions, which in turn would result in severely depleted resources and over-exploitation of aquifers, anthropogenic pollutants that endanger the water quality and competition for water among users (19). On a global scale, water scarcity will affect more the water requirements of the rapidly expanding urban areas where much of the population growth is projected to occur (20). In developing economies, the urbanization and industrialization have often been too fast to allow for the development of adequate infrastructure and management practices including relevant sectors that deal with solid waste and wastewater. Such uncontrolled development adversely impacts the natural resources, the ecosystems and society, limiting access to safe and sufficient drinking water that is intrinsically linked to other socio-economic issues, including food security, health, economic growth and poverty alleviation (21). Worldwide, water used for agricultural irrigation amounts to about 70% of total globally abstracted water volumes, estimated at 6,800 km3/year (22). However, the situation in which most of fresh water is used for irrigation may develop into severe resource allocation conflicts, especially in areas of rapid urbanization, in which more water will be required on the expense of water allocated to the agricultural and the industrial sectors. Many agricultural systems are still inefficient in terms of water usage and contribute to the depletion of water 190 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


resources, degradation of ecosystems and salinization of irrigated land (2). On the other hand, highly mechanized agriculture and irrigation have helped increasing productivity between 2.5 and 3 times over the last 50 years, and more than 40 % of this increase came from irrigated areas (3). Moreover, water allocated to agricultural irrigation is considered as a reserved stock, providing a cushion for drinking water supply in drought years. But, the need to sustain urban areas with food will further raise demand for agricultural products and water. At the same time beyond domestic and commercial uses, water demand of manufacturing and consumer markets to produce electricity, mining and processing will increase within the next 20 years by 85 % (23). This situation will augment the impact of water scarcity. The competing demand for the decreasingly available water resources would lead to conflicts between the economic sectors on water allocation which can significantly limit the prospects for sustainable development of food and energy production (2). To satisfy the demand for water, huge water works are being constructed including reservoirs and dams that hold back storm water, dykes and other barriers to protect reclaimed land and canals and pipelines that convey water from wet areas to dry. This kind of infrastructure is expensive, especially for the Third World and is detrimental to wildlife (24).

4. Impact of Water Availability on Water Quality and Ecosystems Climate change and the resulting drought are challenging not only in terms of water availability and scares resources but also in terms of water quality. Impacts from deteriorating environmental resources due to water quantity and quality pressures have become evident. (25, 26) The over-exploitation of the scanty water resources may led to the depletion of primary fresh water sources, lakes and groundwater aquifers to dangerously low water levels, putting them at additional risks of becoming increasingly saline and subject to eutrophication. Furthermore, rapid urban expansion and economic growth are also important drivers exerting pressures on water resources and water quality. Intensive agriculture, industrial production, mining activities and untreated urban wastewater (2) are also behind the build-up of water resources contamination. The combination of agricultural, industrial and urban wastes has a significant impact on biodiversity and the aquatic ecosystems, adversely affecting their self- cleaning capacity. The pressures on fresh water resources and their effects on water quality and quantity state may be the main global threat in the coming years, resulting in damage to human health or economic activity or both. Further, the water crisis, along with extreme weather events and natural disasters, is among the problems the world is least prepared to deal with, including extreme weather events, failure of national governance, rapid and massive spread of infectious diseases and failure of climate change adaptation (21). The challenge is to keep the resources clean, enabling safe water supply and minimizing risks to the public health (20). 191 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


4.1. Declined Water Quality and Impacts on Ecosystems Rivers normally support biologically diverse aquatic and wetland ecosystems. But, due reduced flow of water in the estuaries, in many regions of the world, the rivers and streams have become seriously depleted and exposed to hazardous substances found in drainage and wastewater that are discharged into natural water bodies (27). As drought persists, the shrinking amounts of water can concentrate contaminants such as heavy metals, industrial chemicals, pesticides, sediments and salts, rendering the aquatic system susceptible to harmful algal blooms and other microorganisms. The reduced flow of storm water to the surface water bodies alters the hydrological cycle and eliminating wetlands and reducing the biodiversity and altering the natural functioning of the aquatic ecological systems and the surrounding oases and wetlands, depriving their capacity to provide ecosystems services. (14, 28) Ecosystem services include for instance the provisioning of food such as fish from aquatic ecosystems, water cleaning properties of wetland and income generation from tourism activities such as bird watching in wetlands. Underprivileged groups usually suffer first and most from deteriorating ecosystems due to water scarcity and water pollution as their livelihood depends largely on the provisioning of regional ecosystem services (20). Rapidly decreasing groundwater levels add to the problems of drying rivers and wetlands due to decreased seepage from aquifers to surface waters. Furthermore, in coastal zones the rivers are affected by saltwater intrusion, further hampering their aquatic systems characteristics. The reduced inflow decreases the dilution effects, causing an increase in the concentration of contaminants, including the level of harmful heavy metals in the water body, although the degree of metal toxicity and bioavailability is related to the composition of water chemistry (29). DOC, pH, hardness, and DO and processes such as the redox state, chelation, complexation, digestion, prey and grazing by zooplankton, protozoan and algae grazing influence the assimilation of elements. As the result, streams and rivers are exposed to excessive contents of suspended solids, turbidity, particulate matter entrainment, salinity and even toxicity which render the water unfit for human and animal consumption. In lakes and slow-flowing rivers with dense algal blooms, excess discharge of nutrients can cause eutrophication, high turbidity and decreased dissolved oxygen due to microbial degradation of dying algae and increased hypoxia in the deeper layers of the water body. The deteriorating state of water quality led to fish death, reduced biodiversity and the formation of cyanobacteria. The harmful cyanobacteria (Cyano-HABs) affect the natural “buffering capacity” of the water body, emitting foul odor and toxins causing fish kill, harming the ecological balance and endanger the water quality (30). 4.2. Deteriorating Water Quantity and Impact on Society Water quantity have severe impact on societies ranging from increased costs to convey water from distant locations to communities in water scarce areas, rising costs to develop new water sources and deteriorating public health. The 192 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


worst impact of lack of sufficient and safe drinking water is in fact the adverse impact on public health which is already apparent, affecting more than one third of the world’s population (31). In Africa, lack of safe water resources is particularly prevalent in many African and Asian nations. More than 547 million people in Africa lack access to basic sanitation, causing illness and premature deaths reducing significantly the Gross Domestic Product (21), while the MDG deadline aiming to halve the population lacking drinking water supply and sanitation provision coverage by 2015 will not be met (32). In south Asia, the more extreme floods and droughts events and the large share of people living under precarious and sanitary deficient conditions pose an immense threat to Asia’s water resources (33). It is assumed that one out of five people (700 million) does not have access to safe drinking water and half of the region’s population (1.8 billion people) lacks access to basic sanitation and many states are unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goals relating to drinking water and sanitation (34). In Brazil, driven by a mysterious atmospheric anomaly, a 2-year-long drought has triggered a crippling water crisis in the southeast region, affecting 85 million people including São Paulo, the nation’s biggest metropolis, the São Paulo government considered drastic rationing that would deprive millions of households of water for up to 5 days a week (35). The distressing situation of lack of safe drinking water affects the health of the population because of dehydration, the consumption of polluted water and the absence of adequate personal hygiene. Unsafe water source can be contaminated by microbial pathogens and chemical constituents which lead to diarrheal and nondiarrheal diseases (36). In addition to the direct health impacts and costs, there are other societal effects, such as an economic loss to a family due to preventing work, or an educational loss to children due to non-attendance at school, either by the illness or the need to care for a family member who has contracted a water related disease. The treatment of poorer quality water, in particular in the case of chemical contaminants, is often an expensive and complex technical process. Elimination of persistent chemicals increases the direct cost of providing drinking water through more expensive treatment technologies and associated consumables, as well as the need to engage highly trained operators and engineers for adequate operation and maintenance.

5. Deteriorating Water Resources – Examples from Water-Stressed Regions of the World Water scarcity is going to affect the world over and its impact will be felt on the natural resources, the ecosystems and society. The impact will amplify the already observed trends of deterioration of the natural and human environment. Selected cases from various regions facing very high risks in terms of absolute water scarcity are described in the following section.

193 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


5.1. Middle East Facing Extreme Water Challenges The Middle East is amongst the regions most affected by water scarcity and hosts 15 of the 18 countries around the world that are at ‘extreme risk’ of water scarcity (37). This risk arises from a combination of the natural environmental and socio-economic drivers and their related pressures. In the Middle East, the annual volume of renewable water resources is less than 200 m3 per capita compared to nearly 100,000 m3 in Canada, 7,400 m3 in the continental U.S., about 3,500 m3 in France, and 2,500 m3 in the U.K. Further, in the region, as a whole, drought is a constant threat causing considerable loss in economic and human terms. On the other hand, the growing population and the economies add pressures on available surface and groundwater resources that have to be abstracted at a greater pace in order to meet the demand of domestic, agriculture and industries. In consequence, in the Middle East together with North Africa, the rivers are among the most heavily dammed in the world (38), but as the number of rivers is too small, groundwater is heavily used and is over exploited. The increasing water demand together with climate change prospects, severely threaten the regional landscape, cultural heritage, food security, development and prosperity. The water problem in the dry regions has deepened and became more critical. Water abstraction in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Malta, Gaza Strip and Syria is close or exceed the yearly volume of renewal resources, as measured by the Water Exploitation Index (18). The recent drought has caused more than 800,000 people in eastern Syria to lose their livelihoods and face extreme hardship (39). Under low replenishment regimes, sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers and saline water bodies in inland aquifers contribute to high salts concentrations of water bodies, adding to the percolation of effluents from municipal and industrial treatment plants and agricultural runoff and leachate from solid waste landfills which enhance the degradation of the groundwater quality. The influx of nitrate and chloride salts and other contaminants render the water unfit for drinking (40). In the Gaza Strip of the Palestinian State, more than 90 per cent of the water extracted from the local aquifer is unsafe for human consumption. The population relies on drinking water from unregulated, private vendors and small and household seawater desalination plants. To comply with stringent drinking water quality standards, multi millions dollars are invested in water supply systems and in water treatment plants to reduce the turbidity level to less than 1 NTU as required under the EU Water Directive (41) and EU Sixth Environment Action Program (2001-2010) (42). Also, many point-of-use (at the tap) and point-of-entry (at the house) treatment systems, including reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and distillation systems are used to reduce organic and inorganic contaminants (43). As discussed above, it seems that in the Middle East, the most water-scarce region of the world, as a whole, water deteriorating conditions are already apparent in the region. The aquifers are over-pumped, water quality is deteriorating, and water supply and irrigation services are hampered-with consequences for human health, agricultural productivity, and the environment. Disputes over water lead to tension within communities, and unreliable water services are prompting people to migrate in search of better opportunities (38). Moreover, if climate change affects 194 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


weather and precipitation patterns as predicted, the MENA region may see more frequent and severe droughts and floods. Clearly, something has to change and integrated management of water resources and regulation rather than provision of more water seem to be the best way toward better management. Currently, the desired changes are taking up very slow because of lack of accountability to the public nu the water managers. The consumers are not sufficiently part of the decision-making processes on the delivery of drinking water and sanitation services. For the situation to improve, water sector decision makers have to improve their role in water management to ensure that new policies and incentives are being drafted to effectively delegating responsibility to users, working towards the provision of high quality services that users are willing and able to pay for. The occurrence of pockets of success gives hope that policy changes and reforms are possible. 5.2. Regional Water Scarcity and Health Implications in India In India, the growing water scarcity and the decrease in water quality affects the most basic needs of vulnerable communities, namely water, occupation and health (44). Water availability varies widely across the nation. In the south, the Karnataka State is strongly threatened by droughts, with 79 % of its areas being considered drought prone (45). The interior regions have a markedly semi-arid climate with a low annual precipitation of only 500 to 600 mm on average (46). The topography as well as the seasonality of precipitation and temperatures are important drivers affecting water availability, while increasing demand from agriculture, industries and households put a growing pressure both on available resources. The dependence on groundwater is very high and back to 2004 groundwater exploitation was defined as critical to semi-critical in 15 out of 27 districts in Karnataka (45). The situation of water is further aggravated by anthropogenic pollution of the available resources, as very little of the domestic and industrial wastewater in India is collected and treated. Overall in India, only about 30 % of the wastewater generated in class I cities (> 100,000 inhabitants) and only 8 % in class II cities are treated (46). In consequence, the discharge of untreated wastewater together with the rapid urbanization and industrialization put a strong pressure on groundwater and surface water. Some 55 Mm3 of industrial wastewater per day, containing toxic and persistent substances, is discharged without reaching the minimum quality standards and 43 out of 88 industrial areas in India are critically polluted (47). As a result, many of water resources in India are unfit for consumption and pose a serious threat to human health. Rural areas, especially, are impacted severely by the combined effects of water scarcity and deteriorating water quality. Rural households have access to less than 40 liters of safe water per day recommended by the World Health Organization. (48, 49) Insufficient water supply increases the risk of infections and water related diseases (36). In addition, due to geo-genic pollution of groundwater, about 66 million of the rural population is affected by chemical contaminants in their drinking water due to excess fluoride and arsenic (45). Water borne diseases take a big toll of the Indian economy in terms of mortality, illness and productivity, in a situation were bad 195 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


water and sanitation contribute more than 9 % to the number of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (50). The impact of water scarcity and inadequate water management on the Indian population and economy is likely to increase unless a proper action is taken. While the Indian policies, laws and regulations are known to be well advanced and appropriate, implementation remains challenging. The responsibility on water resources, water supply and quality control is divided between too many national, state, district and local bodies. A coherent chain of command and clear definition of terms duties and institutions is recommended (51). 5.3. Drought Threatening Water Supply in California In 2014 California recorded the driest calendar year in its 119 years record the warmest year on record (52). The extremely dry conditions have persisted since 2012 and may continue beyond this year because of the impact of climate change. The climate in 2014 followed the high temperatures that led to unusually low snowpack in the mountains of California during the last four years. As the results, California’s river and reservoirs are below their record lows, at about 20 percent of normal average. California’s major river systems, including the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, have significantly reduced surface water flows and the water quality is jeopardized. Because of the drought and the resulting low flow, salt water brought in on tidal flows is being pushed farther upstream. This salinity affects the quality of the water for human use, as well as for environmentally sensitive species, such as delta smelt and Chinook salmon. The drought heightens fire danger and threats to endangered aquatic species and wildlife. In the aftermath, ash, woody debris and sediment can flow from burn areas and contaminate water supplies (53). The climate change has significantly affected the sustainability of water supplies. The state relies on this melting snow to feed the rivers and streams for its water supply, hydropower generation, navigation, recreation and habitat for aquatic and riparian species. The vegetation is visibly dry and as the State get drier, the amount of water available and its quality is decreasing - impacting people’s drinking water, public health and food supplies and animals and plants that rely on rivers water. Because of the reduced surface water, the reliance upon groundwater increases leading to excessive pumping which outstrips the replenishment, causing a drop in water levels and the wells to go dry, resulting in decreased water availability and deterioration of groundwater. Water levels in wells used for drinking water supply are at record lows. Hundreds of families in the Central Valley lost running water when the aquifer level fell below the reach of their pumps, while farmers drilled wells at a feverish pace, further depleting a resource that is critically endangered. The lack of water has prevented the hydropower plants from running at full capacity, reducing to roughly half the hydropower generation capacity. During the three years ending in October 2014, the “cost” to California ratepayers was approximately US$1.4 billion for the use of additional natural gas while additional combustion of fossil fuels for electric generation caused an 8 % increase in carbon dioxide emissions from California power plants (54). In normal times, agriculture consumes roughly 80 percent of the available surface water. But under the drought conditions, the State severely 196 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


curtailed water supplies to agricultural producers, forcing farmers to reduce cultivation or change cropping to high value crops needing less water. Under such conditions, the Governor proclaimed a drought state of emergency in January 2014 aiming to conserve water in every way possible. In accordance, the State Water Resources Control Board, building on unprecedented action was requested to release its framework to achieve the mandatory water reductions (55). The Board enforced local water restrictions against water waste, as well as conservation restrictions including strict limits on indoor and outdoor use and in parallel, launched a water conservation public awareness campaign (56) to provide timely updates on the drought on state and federal programs and deputized staff to issue water conservation-related warnings. The Board also implemented projects that can increase local water supplies with limited environmental impacts including temporary rock barrier across a Sacramento San Joaquin Delta channel to help prevent the saltwater contamination of water. USGS Water Science Center assists water managers providing hydrologic data and scientific analysis to address complex issues and competing interests in times of drought through the Cooperative Water Program (57). A major development is the construction of the Carlsbad desalination plant, in San Diego County. The largest seawater desalination project in the Western Hemisphere will produce 50 million US gallons (190,000 m3) of water per day (69 million m3 per annum) with energy use of ~3.6 kWh for 1 m3 fresh water. The total cost is expected to reach near $1 billion and the unit cost is estimated between $1,849 and $2,064 per acre-foot. The plant will become cost-competitive with imported water sources by the mid-2020s. The construction started by December 28th, 2012 and scheduled to be completed in November 2015. The reverse-osmosis plant will meet 7 percent of San Diego County’s demand in 2020 with drought-proof, highly reliable water and will reduce the dependence on imported water which is not always available. The desalination plant is an element of the Water Authority’s long-term strategy which includes securing independent water transfers from the Colorado River, increasing water-use efficiency and developing local sources and recycled water (58).

6. Responses to Water Scarcity The state of water resources with regard to quantity, quality and spatial distribution is governed by socio-economic and environmental drivers which exert pressures on water resources. The deterioration of the water state such as vanishing local water resources or worsening water quality has impacts on ecosystems and societies including for instance challenges in safe drinking water supply. Understanding causal chains helps finding adequate measures or ‘responses’ in order (i) to address underlying causes of water scarcity (drivers focused responses), (ii) to mitigate direct pressures on water quantity and quality (pressures focused responses) and thus help improving the state of natural water resources, (iii) to reduce impacts from water scarcity (impacts oriented responses), and (iv) to combine different measures into integrative concepts. 197 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


6.1. Water Governance and Institutional Arrangements Water governance is defined by political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place and which directly or indirectly affect the use, development and management of water resources and the delivery of water services at different levels of society. Good governance is based on transparency, integrity and accountability, considering the involvement of a range of actors and stakeholders. Such good governance and therewith related institutions able to manage water resources is especially essential with regard to preparedness for climate change and where rapid changes occur because of rapid urbanization and other factors influencing water resources. However, governance structures of water resources are still inadequate in many countries. This includes, among others, lack of effective operational strategies, fragmentation of responsibilities between authorities, weak policy implementation and law enforcement, and weak monitoring and limited technical, management and implementation capabilities to address water challenges, and financial constraints to implement policies. In most countries, key responsibility on water management lays in several ministries including Ministry of Irrigation, Ministry of Energy and Water, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Infrastructure or Water Authority. This horizontal and vertical diffusion of responsibilities in the water sector needs a high level of coordination and interactions, also between different disciplines. Improving water management includes utility restructuring, adoption of stringent environmental rand water regulations, such as the EU Water Framework Directive (41), (resource pricing and water cost recovery. Accordingly, the responsibility on water management which is under several ministries and agencies is gradually changing and many countries are devising and implementing mechanisms for cross-sectorial coordination at multiple levels. Others have started to decentralize water management and services to the watershed level, regulating access to water, where, for which purposes and under what conditions and how the sources are protected against depletion and pollution. New funding instruments are also being introduced such as public-private partnerships (PPPs), particularly in operation and maintenance of the water supply and sanitation systems as well as the establishment of water and sewerage corporations. These semi-autonomous agencies, replacing the traditional municipal water and sewerage departments, are better suited to manage water supply, wastewater collection, treatment and disposal facilities, securing that the revenues are used to improve the services and upgrading of the ageing systems. On national and international scales major management systems such as Water Demand Management (WDM) and the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) are suggested as a sound platform for the implementation of policies, plans and laws for the control and protection of the country’s water resources covering institutional structure, decision making, budgeting, manpower, R&D and enforcement, as discussed below.



6.2. Water Demand Management (WDM) Water Demand Management (WDM) refers to the implementation of policies or measures which serve to control or influence the amount of water used. WDM employs a set of complementary policy options including regulatory, economic, technical and educative measures, as required to address water scarcity and droughts conditions. WDM includes non-engineering demand oriented measures, such as consumption regulation, public awareness and economic incentives aiming to match demand with available supply. In an attempt to reduce demand and to improving water use efficiency, WDM addresses three levels of actions: proper allocation of water between all the economic sectors and the environment, water supply and water use by the consumers. Key principles of WDM can be summarized as follows: • • • •

• • • • • •

Institutional coordination between ministries involved in the management of water resources. Integration of the various policies (water and sectorial policies). Legal framework, addressing issues of water as a public property, detaching land rights from water rights, running through it or under. To ensure access to a sufficient, safe, and regular supply of water to satisfy personal and domestic needs and no individual shall be deprived of the minimum essential amount of water. Respect the principles of non-discrimination and the right of individuals and groups to participate in decision-making processes. Involvement of the users in water resources planning and management, integration of social considerations. Adequate use of economic instruments. Public awareness of the need for water saving. Qualified staff in charge of water management. Financial capacity to induce the implementation of the national plans for an integrated management of water resources and water demand.

6.3. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) The sustainable development of societal systems such as water services requires also a coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable way while safe-guarding vital ecosystems (59). Such coordination is highly interdisciplinary and requires an integrated approach that takes account of different interests which can be grouped as interests related to: (i) Water usage such as agricultural, domestic and industrial water use. (ii) Protection of water resources in order to sustain ecosystems and their services to society, and (iii) Protection of society from water for instance by flood prevention measures. 199 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

Such a highly integration of different disciplines and interests can profit from integrated water management frameworks such as integrated water resources management (IWRM). IWRM thus requires that both human needs and ecosystem integrity can be balanced (60) which also depends on an integrative understanding of how ecosystems affect the welfare of societies (61). IWRM thus aims at integrating many of the above mentioned responses and tools into a coherent interdisciplinary approach between different stakeholders and their interests. According to the Global Water Partnership (59) basic principles of IWRM include: Downloaded by CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIV on December 8, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): December 3, 2015 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2015-1206.ch010

•

• •

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Water is a finite and valuable resource: Therefore, the optimization of water supply involves the analysis of available surface and groundwater resources, assessment of possible nonconventional water resources and environmental protection and pollution control to maintain the quality and usability of water resources. Participatory approaches: Adopting a participatory and inter-sectoral approach to decision-making. Equitable decision-making and access: Consideration of gender issues and inclusion of marginalized groups in the decision making process and guaranteeing equitable access to water resources. Water as an economic good: Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefits analyses for the choice of WDM measures, with a long term dimension, identifying benefits and limitations of the WDM approaches, both in terms of economic and social consequences.

Numerous regulations are being promulgated on a worldwide scale in order to act according to the principles of IWRM to overcome a looming and lasting water crisis. Many countries are currently in a stage of governance reform, orienting priorities and practices towards an IWRM approach, aiming to: •

• •

Formulation, establishment and implementation of water policies, legislation, institutions and water administration based on hydrogeological characteristics rather than administrative boundaries Balance water use between socio-economic activities and ecosystems Monitoring, assessment, documentation and sharing of best practices

Community-Based Management In the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, a community based bottom-up water management approach was applied aiming to reverse the trend of over-exploited aquifers. Local management at the community level representing more than 6,000 farmers were trained to collect and report basic data on the local aquifers and to assess groundwater recharge and water availability, and in accordance to elaborate appropriate cropping schemes and disseminated the findings to the farming community (3). Local water governance in combination with training 200 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

and information dissemination campaigns appeared to be at the core of this success story.


Decision Support Systems (DSS) WDM and IWRM can be viable and important management systems to deal and solve problems of the water sector, averting the severe effects of the expanding water crises. To do so, the decision makers are required to recognize the risk of inaction and who are able to make informed choices about allocations of water that will impact users across the various sectors of the economy. Decision Support Systems (DSS) that integrate environmental, social and economic concerns and the involvement of interested parties in the formulation of strategies can be applied to evaluate possible management options (62). DSS utilize inter-sectoral data, integration and visualisation of temporal and spatial results and how private and public interests are balanced and how the stakeholders are involved in decisionmaking in management processes. The DSS platforms, the DPSIR together multicriteria analysis models and similar (63) can help in the selection of appropriate and sustainable responses for the water crisis for a particular region of the world. 6.4. Water Conservation Water conservation is considered as the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the country’s depleted water resources. When water is conserved or used more efficiently, it is as if more water were added to the supply side of the equation. Conservation is a critical goal which could ensure that enough water for the domestic use, industry, irrigation, environment and other important parts of the economy is available. Saving water on a daily basis helps to stretch water supply, employing simple water saving devices, adapted to the local market and technical conditions, to reduce the amount of water that it is used at home, both inside and outside, possibly accompanied by subsidies in the first phase. Water saving can be achieve at all levels of water use, including agriculture, domestic and industrial water demand. Water saving measures would lead to a reduction of water abstraction and therefore would have positive impacts as regards energy saving (avoiding additional pumping for transport, treatment) and environmental preservation. It will moderate the pace of construction of water works comprising reservoirs and dams, dikes and other barriers to protect developed areas, pumping and water conveyance and distribution systems. Such huge infrastructure is expensive, especially for the developing world, and adversely impacts on the environment and the ecosystems.

Water Conservation in Agriculture The world’s population is rapidly growing and is estimated to reach nearly 10 billion people in 2050 (15). Thus, the global food production will need to increase by 60% to meet the food needs in 2050 (64). In this context, achieving food 201 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


and nutrition security, today and for the predicted world population and dietary habits, is a key global challenge and the development of sustainable irrigation schemes is a central pillar in this endeavor. To supply urban population with food there will be even higher demand for agricultural products and related water usage. In addition to keeping pace with the growing demand for food and poverty alleviation, irrigation has and instrumental value in maintaining environmental services and ecosystem viability. Irrigation contributes to sustainable land use and conservation of open space and agricultural land. On the negative side, irrigation contributes to the depletion of groundwater and reductions in land availability. Therefore pressure is mounting on agriculture to adjust to water scarcity, the competition for water by other sectors and the growing cost of obtaining additional water. To lessen water demand of the agricultural sector, introduction of adequate cost-recovery policies is essential and curb the production of water intensive crops, such as rice, sugar-cane and bananas (65) and in turn entice the use of marginal and nonconventional water resources. In the OECD countries, agriculture is still heavily subsidized, at an average of 23 %, but the objective is to gradually charge farmers for the “true resource value” of water (66). Other measures that may be applied to create the incentives to improve water use efficiency in agriculture would include: • • • •

Reducing water losses in the distribution systems, avoiding seepage, percolation and spillage in the supply network. Introduction of highly efficient ultra-low volume irrigation techniques. Substitution of fresh water with non-potable water (effluent or natural brackish water). Use of salinity tolerant varieties, adjusted to irrigation with brackish and treated wastewater effluents.

The use of least wasteful irrigation technologies, such as drip and micro-drip systems and the related automated control systems would half the OECD 2002/4 average of 7,500 m3 ha-1 yr.-1, while the rate of production per unit of water would increase (66). The water needs of irrigation will continue to be considerable and even expand provided that new irrigation technologies and irrigation management practices are being introduced, leading to a significant increase in irrigation efficiency. Another aspect that influences the extent of water use for irrigation is the virtual water trade which is embedded in the international trade of food. The food trade reflects a virtual flow of water from the manufacturing to the importing food country. Quantification of virtual water flow can assist in management of water used for irrigation on a regional and international scale.

Domestic Water Conservation For the promotion and implementation of sustainable water habits, different specific tools exist to foster water conservation. Public water conservation campaigns coupled with technical and economic incentives and penalties can 202 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


be launched to reduce consumption and to increase awareness of water scarcity. To cut consumption, water metering, leakage and pressure control, improved water-saving appliances and fixtures and tariff and water charges based on the volumetric consumption can be introduced. For instance in the State of California during the current drought of 2014, several measures were adopted by in which the State made strides to save water in the face of one of the worst droughts in generations. The Conservation Creativity Challenge Poster Contest aiming to educate students about the serious drought, together with thousands of individuals who shared their conservation tips helped to raise awareness of everyday water conservation practices, yielding a 10 % saving in water consumption, enough to supply 1.37 million California residents for a year (67). With the state still in the grips of a long lasting drought, the Californians were asked to make water conservation a permanent effort, employing conservation measures which include: • • • • •

check for leaks, install low-flow shower heads, replace older toilets with new dual water flush models, replace lawns and other water-hungry plants with water-wise plants, and, use drip irrigation and avoid overwatering.

Rainwater Harvesting To adapt to climate change at the rural areas, the traditional rainwater harvesting can be revitalized and reintroduced using innovative techniques and tools that can be applied in remote small communities. Rainwater harvesting could be a sustainable way of providing access to drinking water in water scarce areas, while helping to overcome current and future water scarcity challenges.

6.5. Development of Nonconventional Water Resources (NCWR) To satisfy the ever-increasing demand for all sectors, generally, the common strategy is to search for additional sources and building the necessary infrastructure to convey and distribute the new supplies to the users. However, this ‘business-as-usual’ strategy of dealing with water scarcity issues is no longer valid to cope with water supply challenges. Withdrawal of water by construction of new dams, canals and other infrastructure is no longer an option, as it will result in unsustainable use and further deterioration of the resources. A new comprehensive strategy which will define how water is exploited, stored, and delivered has to be evolved, completely divorced from intense development and construction of new water works based on natural water resource. Instead, the focus should be on conservation, protection and regulation of available resources, as discussed above and on the development of nonconventional water resources (NCWR), regional cooperation, water transfer and virtual water import, 203 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


as discussed in the following. In Europe for instance the Maltese Islands have limited freshwater resources and rising demand has an evident need to mobilize NCWR as a potentially cost-effective method for water availability and climate change adaptation. Similarly, Cyprus has introduced water metering, pricing policies and rationing as well as adopting measures to reduce leakages and modernizing the irrigation systems. These countries and others are turning to NCWR such as seawater desalination and recycled water use for irrigation of agricultural crops and aquifer recharge. In the developing world, there is also the revival of traditional water harvesting and management techniques, which have been overlooked in favour of modern technologies which appears to be a promising alternative for supplying drinking water in the face of the increasing water scarcity and escalating demand. Modern rainwater harvesting systems attempt to revitalize traditional rainwater collection systems combining improved innovative techniques to obtain water under scarce conditions. Rainwater harvesting can be positioned as a helpful way, at a local level, providing access to water and demonstrating a “new water culture” for addressing the current and future water scarcity challenges.

6.5.1. Water Reuse Environmental safety and health impacts of wastewater have long been a matter of concern regarding the potential harm to landscape, agricultural workers and crop and soils irrigated with wastewater effluents (68). Accordingly, domestic and industrial wastewater has to be adequately treated at substantial cost in order to meet the standards of public health and disposal to land and or water bodies. Wastewater treatment technology is well advanced and the technology poses no limiting factor in the design of a treatment train to produce an effluent of a desired quality, for the intended use, at the most economical and sustainable way. Common treatment of municipal wastewater includes physical and biological treatment in the form of activated sludge systems, combining aeration tanks that use suspended microbes to degrade organic nutrients and large sedimentation tanks (clarifiers) to separate the solids and liquid fraction. To reduce the water resident time and foot print, membrane biological reactors (MBR) which combine suspended biomass with immersed microfiltration or ultrafiltration membranes are used to replace gravity sedimentation. The MBR reduces the reactor volume and use less chemical and energy, while improving the removal of nitrogen and phosphorous. The biological treatment which generates secondary effluent is complemented with a tertiary treatment comprising physical and chemical treatment processes in the form of filtration and disinfection systems, to produce tertiary effluents suitable for unrestricted non-potable applications. As of now, only about 20 % of global wastewater is currently being treated, leaving low-income countries hardest hit by contaminated water supplies and disease. There is an emerging consensus on the recognition of the importance of wastewater treatment and reuse and its contribution to the sustainable development of water resources and water quality. Sewage flow which is drained 204 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


back to municipal and industrial sewerage treatment systems or untreated to the environment comprises 70 – 80 % of the consumed water. Therefore, it is essential to capture and restore the effluents to create new water supplies for non-potable applications, classified as indirect or direct use (69). Most treated wastewater is nowadays discharged into rivers and streams and thus contributes to the flow in these natural water bodies. Unless the river directly enters the sea, in most cases water is again abstracted further downstream from a water treatment plant inlet and thus constitutes a way of informal indirect reuse. The treated wastewater can be more directly reused for industrial production, in agriculture for irrigation and in domestic use for non-potable uses, such as toilet flushing. Such uses require different water qualities and thus specific additional water treatment may be necessary after conventional wastewater treatment to make the water fit for direct reuse. Such water reuse schemes can reduce the pressure on existing resources, managing the imbalance between water demand and supply. However, the risks linked to this activity include mainly threat to public health and environmental risks. Informal and unsafe use of wastewater can jeopardize the health of farmers, local communities and consumers (68). The economic impact of public health epidemics or environmental pollution results from unsafe practice, high distribution and storage costs due to the distance between supply and demand. In addition social tensions can arise in case of non-acceptance of this practice, as discussed below.

Wastewater Composition Wastewater contains a wide variety of contaminants and pathogens and has a very high loading of organic matter and inorganic pollutants, requiring a better understanding of the sources, occurrence, fate and effects, regarding human health and ecological impacts. All of which, must be removed or transformed to harmless compounds, including: physical (solid properties), biological (pathogens, microbial and antibiotics) and chemicals (pH, alkalinity, ions, metals, fats, oils and grease (FOG), organics and nutrients and micro nutrients). In addition to the diversity of chemicals found in domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural waste, also other biologically active chemicals, such as human and veterinary medicinal and personal care products (PPCPs) termed emerging contaminants (EC) are of a great concern. Apart from possible direct effects on human health and the aquatic and terrestrial environment, emerging contaminants can undergo biological and chemical degradation and form potentially harmful transformation products in the environment (70). These compounds which are disposed down the drain to municipal wastewater treatment plants, individual septic systems and landfills or originating from manufacturing facilities, hospitals and healthcare facilities have to be removed (71). A complete list of biological, inorganic and organic contaminants associated with wastewater reclamation and reuse and of importance to human and ecosystems health is provided by the National Research Council (72). 205 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Wastewater Reuse Schemes In large wastewater treatment schemes, the secondary effluents maybe used to recharge groundwater aquifers in which they are subjected to further physical, biological and chemical processes, or detained in large surface reservoirs for further biological treatment before use. The upper and the underground detention of the effluents for several months greatly improve the physical and chemical characteristics of the effluents to a level that complies with the quality standards in force for unrestricted irrigation. (73, 74) Such water reuse schemes can reduce the pressure on existing resources, managing the imbalance between water demand and supply. The effluent quality is suitable for discharge to aquatic systems and or for non-restricted irrigation and other industrial applications. The allocation of effluents for irrigation allows continuous agricultural production while contributing to the preservation of the green space and elimination of effluents discharge into water courses, avoiding the pollution of land streams, aquifers and the sea.

Environmental Impacts and Prospects Risks linked to wastewater reuse include mainly threats to public health and environmental risks and need to be carefully addressed. The application of effluents on land may lead to increased salinity of the irrigated soils (75) and accumulation of persistent EC substances in soil (70) and the ecosystems. (76, 77) But, in light of the minutes quantities and numerous EC potentially present in the effluent the dilution, the hydraulic residence time and in-situ attenuation processes, their potential risk to the environment or human health, if any, is difficult to evaluate (78, 79) and as of now any adverse impacts are inconclusive (80). Nevertheless, a commonly agreed guidance framework should be developed to provide a consistent approach to the management of water reuse. Also, intensive R&D and monitoring activities are essential to clearly illuminate the associated public health and environmental risks and the soil/water/crop relationship. Despite the environmental risks and uncertainties, in regions with stressed water resources, in particular, indirect and direct potable reuse are already or will likely play an increasing role in the management of water resources.

Current Extent of Water Reuse Many countries have already made significant progress in the reuse of wastewater including Israel where approximately 85 % of wastewater is reclaimed accounting to ca. 50 % of irrigation water (81), California (10 %), Spain, Australia and Italy (9 %) and Greece (5 %). In Europe, as a whole, only 2.5 % of treated waste water (700Mm3 yr.-1) is reused. In countries with high water scarcity (Cyprus, France, Israel, Italy, Malta, Greece, Portugal, Spain), wastewater reuse 206 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


is increasingly being used as a suitable alternative. Water reuse for agricultural irrigation enables the release of natural water for domestic consumption, whilst providing farmers with a reliable year round supply, endowing dividends to urban dwellers, farmers and the environment. Experience has shown that economic incentives and subsidized irrigation infrastructure in the form of lower prices and higher water quota could contribute to a significant increase in the use of nonconventional water for irrigation and to switch from potable water to alternative irrigation water sources, yielded the desired effect. In the case of Israel, Palestine and Jordan, for a population of 18 million (in 2010) water supply amounted to 3,000million m3 yr.-1, as against the available natural resources which amount to only 2,100 million m3 yr.-1. About 30 % is supplied from NCWR. Twice as much (6,200 million m3 yr.-1) will be required by 2040, of which only 2,600 million m3 yr.-1 (50 %) will be derived from natural resources and the remaining 50 % will derive from treated effluent (1,900 million m3/yr.,). Paradoxically, the irrigation which is still a major consumer, using, presently, about 1.4 billion m3yr.-1 (60 %) can be further expanded to reach a consumption of about 3.2 billion m3 yr.-1, mostly from water reuse (81). Water reuse, in addition to the clear environmental benefits, presents a major challenge for the conservation and rational allocation of freshwater resources, providing an attractive solution to climate change and can contribute to the restoration of streams, wetlands, lakes and aquifers. Water reuse provides an attractive adaptation solution to climate change and can contribute to the restoration of streams, wetlands, lakes and aquifers. Treated wastewater and reuse will also contribute to poverty reduction and food security, better nutrition and sustains agricultural employment for many households. Wastewater treatment technology is well advanced and the technology poses no limiting factor in the design of a treatment train to produce an effluent of a desired quality, for the intended use, at the most economical and sustainable way. As the timeframe for the Millennium Development Goals is near completion, it is assumed that minds will be turning to the Post-2015 Development Agenda (82) giving due attention to wastewater which exacerbates some of the water quality problems seen globally. Treated wastewater and reuse, as discussed above, will contribute to reduced poverty and improved food security, better nutrition and sustainable agriculture in the rural areas.

6.5.2. Desalination Desalination is recognized as an attractive and realistic option to produce fresh water as required to satisfy domestic water demand, especially where other alternatives to augment water supplies are not available or have grown to be more expensive than desalination. As such, in water scarce areas, thousands of desalination plants have been built to supply drinking water for the rapidly growing population.



Sea Water Desalination Technologies Two basic types of technologies have been widely used to separate salts from ocean water: thermal evaporation and membrane separation Reverse Osmosis (RO). Of the two technologies, RO emerged as the most suitable technology to build flexible and modular plants to desalinate brackish and seawater RO desalination plants (SWRO). SWRO has gained momentum and currently dominates desalination markets outside of the Arable Golf where thermal evaporation is still the desalination technology of choice (mainly due to access to low-cost fuel and co-generation of power and water). The SWRO technology is well established and considered the least energy intensive desalination technology. Increased market competition and technological improvements including improved RO membranes with higher salt rejection, high efficiency of pumps and motors and efficient energy recovery devices (ERDs) have dramatically reduced the cost of water produced in SWRO (83). But, the RO energy consumption of 3.5kWh m-3 is still on the higher side. The cost of energy (60 % of the operation costs) is relatively high, fueling the general water industry’s perception that seawater desalination industry is inadequately viable (84). However, manipulation of the plant operation and water production at off-peak hours may yield a significant saving in the cost of energy (85).

Current Extent of Desalination As of 2013, desalination plants operated worldwide, produced more than 80 million cubic meters (MCM) per day (86). In Israel, desalination of brackish and sea water has now reached a production capacity of more than 600 million m3 yr.-1, equal to about 90 % of the current domestic consumption. The plan is to be gradually extended to 750 MCM by 2020 and to 1,600 MCM per year by 2040 to allow a reliable supply with a probability of 95 % (87). Of the total 6,200 million m3 yr.-1 that will be required to meet the demand of Israel, Palestine and Jordan by 2040, 25 % will be produced from sea water desalination (1,600 million m3 yr.-1) (74). In Australia, the most important desalination plants are located in Perth and Sidney and the two plants were designed to produce about 250’000 m3/day and above (88). Improvements in design, management, the scale of equipment and pre and post-treatment have been as important as improvements in the core reverse osmosis technology, leading to a fall in desalination prices over the past decades. Thus, it is inevitable that SWRO will become a preferable solution for the global water shortage and the expanding water scarcity, meeting the increasing needs for water of the world population, of which close to 50 % will be living in countries chronically short of water by 2050 (15).



Environmental Impact Desalination of sea water impact the environment at many different levels, starting at the location of desalination plants close to the sea coast, the construction of deep sea water intake and brine and backwash outfall, the use of cleaning chemicals and the need for a major power supply requiring the erection of independent power plants. The desalination plants affect the local biodiversity in the ecologically sensitive coastal areas, contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, discharging concentrated saline waste, causing a build-up of the chemicals that threaten the fragile marine ecosystem. A desalination plant producing 100 million m3 yr.-1 of desalinated water discharges up to 535 tons per year of Fe and 40 tons per year of P and containing 73.5 g L-1 of salts, double the sea background level. High energy consumption is also associated with the need to remove Boron in permeate which require a second filtration pass which increases the overall energy consumption. To alleviate some adverse environmental impacts, the desalination plants are built close to power plants to be able to blend the brine discharge with the power plant cooling water or use diffusers to achieve a rapid mixing with the entire water column, resulting in lower salinity and lower temperature. The off-shore seawater intakes are built as submerged structures with slow intake velocity to avoid interference with the aquatic life and the filter backwash waste stream is treated to remove TSS and other impurities. Other mitigation measures are highlighted by UNEP/MAP (89). However, further work on risk and impact assessment is still necessary, leading to improved membranes, having a longer life expectancy, higher flux as well as nano- membranes, carbon nanotubes, membrane distillation and increased energy efficiency. (90–93)

7. Trans-Boundary Water and Regional Cooperation Where essential and reliable sources of water are shared between administrative boundaries such as provinces, districts and countries, the need for cooperation is imperative. River basin management has become an established approach to integrate different water related interests, integrating the use of water and the protection of water resources. Beyond the obvious disparities between countries, similarities which are linked to climate, geography and multi cultures, the stakes and challenges related to shared water are similar and represent a broad field for cooperation. Climate change can indirectly increase risks of violent conflicts in the form of civil war and inter-group violence by amplifying well-documented drivers of these conflicts such as poverty and economic shocks. The potential for conflict is more than theoretical. Turkey, Syria and Iraq bristle over the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (39). Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt trade threats over the Nile and water scarcity is behind the wars in Sudan’s Darfur region and in Somalia. In the realm of water, food security and climate change, all the states in any region are interdependent. Thus, a common commitment by the academy, the industry and public policy by the governments across borders is essential to drive innovations in the water sector, designing and delivering regional targets to solve water scarcity, agricultural production and ecosystems safety. 209 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

Limiting Factors to Regional Cooperation From a broader perspective, the benefits of regional cooperation in natural resources appear to be convincing. But there are difficulties in balancing sovereignty with regionalization, including: •


•

Disputed historical records. When countries face contending water claims, one of the biggest obstacles to reaching an agreement is uncertainty of information, unable to assess or predict future events based on disputed historical records. Parties perception. The positions of the parties are framed in ideological or political terms and not on actual facts. The parties cannot predict a cause-effect of how one sided actions would affect the shared water quantity and quality.

Further, the geographical position of a nation, upstream-downstream, in a river basin amplifies the risk of imbalance in the negotiations on how water should be allocated between the countries but also how the river can be harnessed (e.g. hydropower, water supply and irrigation). The extent of pressure on resources may lead to conflicts between the neighboring states, most particularly between the upstream and downstream of trans-boundary river basins (the Euphrates, the Jordan, the Nile…), raising the issues of water rights (94). In this context, the Middle East has been suffering for decades by political tensions and conflicts, many of which are armed and without easy solution. The conflicts have caused major socio-economic and environmental problems, including growing pressure on already fragile and scarce trans-boundary water resources. Furthermore, there is a competition on water use between human, nature and ecosystems.

Benefits of Regional Cooperation A cooperative approach coupled with scientific and innovative action could avert water crisis preventing regional conflicts while achieving common socio – economic and environmental goals. In accordance, initiation of regional cooperation in which local actors play a leading role in the management of trans-boundary waters is also essential. The parties can use uncertainties to generate opportunities to build trusting relationships based on actual results to adapt and ensure positive outcomes and longevity of regional agreements. The challenge is to avoid the trap of zero-sum thinking, recognizing that water is not a fixed resource. Getting a fixed share of trans-boundary water will not help either party to deal with population water needs in case of a drought and at a time of decreasing environmental quality. Thus, focusing on what share of the water the parties get would produce a sub-optimal outcome, as it ignores existing and future water needs as against the fixed allocation. The critical ingredients for a framework for a regional establishment, leading to confidence and cooperation in water resources development, water transfer and interconnection of water systems may include: 210 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

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Developing mechanisms for optimal regional cooperation, sharing of know-how, information and of data. Formation of quantitative and qualitative baseline for the management of trans-boundary water resources. Addressing immediate pressing watershed and trans-boundary problems affecting water and trans-boundary conflicts and challenges. To ensure that water is not used as an instrument of political or economic pressure. Integrating conservation and quality of water resources into sustainable development policies. Monitoring of resources, using a structured system of exchange of information and providing a mechanism for confidence building. Setting a functional cooperative research on trans-boundary water resources.

To support regional cooperation, a structured capacity building is required to strengthen the capacity of water industry at all levels from water users to water managers to deal with the emerging problems of competition, use of low quality water, multiple uses of water, water savings, and sustainability. To sensitize the general public and disseminate programs on the sustainable water use and water solutions such as NCWR that can be easily and cost effectively applied at domestic and community level.

Examples of Regional Cooperation and Treaties A number of formalized institutional collaborations exist around the world. These include the Mekong River Commission, in Southeast Asia, and Okavango River Commission in South Africa, the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan and the Ganges Water Treaty between Bangladesh and India and between Israel and Jordan, to name a few. Despite dramatic differences in these instances, the parties involved were able to treat water as a flexible resource and meet conflicting interests simultaneously. In the case of India water treaties, the effects of the Indian law which intertwines groundwater property rights with land ownership required much greater integration between a range of actors and interests. However, out of 263 trans-boundary river basins between countries 158 still lack any type of cooperative management framework, indicating that mechanisms, political will and/or resources to manage water resources bi- or multilaterally are missing (2) or not obvious to decision makers. In the case of Jordan and Israel peace treaty (95), a detailed agreement was reached regarding water sharing of the trans-boundary Yarmouk and Jordan Rivers in the north, and the groundwater in the Arava Valley in the south. Land and water resources conflicts which were unilaterally explored, critically damaging the environment and the long-term water security were solved based on:


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“Rightful allocations” and not on “water rights” without reference to international law. Continuous use of water against conceded land across borders, for a definite period. Storage of water for use by the other side. Land and water are not necessarily bundled. To undertake the development of joint additional water resources.

Based on these principles, the Israel Jordan Water Treaty specified the amount of water to be drawn by Israel (25 Mm3) in exchange of storage of the winter flow (20 Mm3) in Israel for use by Jordan during the summer. Israel also conceded certain land against the right to continue its cultivation for twenty-five years and the right to explore groundwater from an underlying aquifer in exchange of conceded land. The parties established a wide mandate permanent bi-lateral Joint Water Committee to oversee the treaty implementation and address future challenges, reaching decisions by consensus (95). By-passing the issue of water rights and claims, the parties demonstrated innovative administrative approach which facilitated problem solving, enhancing sustainable solutions that are acceptable to all sides. In the realm of water, food security and climate change, all the actors and states sharing common resources in any region could adapt these principles and develop a common commitment across administrative borders to drive innovations aiming to solve water scarcity, agricultural production and ecosystems safety. Such approach will bring a high degree of regional collaboration, sharing capacity and responsibility.

8. Conclusions Water scarcity is and will continue to pose serious challenges which will lead to further depletion of natural resources and degradation of water quality below safe levels. Given the widening gap between the over-exploited renewable resources and water demand in many regions, strong responses coordinated between different involved sectors and interests are necessary to be shaped into a positive action to safeguard natural ecosystems while supplying water for current and future generations. In this context, innovative approaches should be adapted to crystalize comprehensive and integrative management systems of water resources, incorporating measures or ‘responses’ to: (i) minimize human drivers of water scarcity, promoting legal and institutional systems facilitating a sustainable and integrative water resources management; (ii) mitigate direct pressures on water resource state, for instance by implementation of water demand management and integrated water resources management;



(iii) ameliorate impacts on society from water scarcity and pollution, mobilizing nonconventional water resources to satisfy the basic and vital needs for water. The structure of this chapter follows the Drivers-Pressures-State-ImpactsResponses framework and the application of this or similar frameworks can help in the assessment of local and regional water situations and challenges and selection of sustainable and locally adjusted responses. In the light of increasing demand for adequate water management this can contribute toward an integrated water resources management. We have shown that various responses exist to reduce water scarcity and address quality issues and highlighted examples from water scarce regions of the world. In India, community-based groundwater management applying an integrated management approach resulted with locally affordable and low-tech solutions to secure water for all during the dry periods. In other cases, such as many countries in the Middle East, water reuse has proven to be an attractive solution, generating treated effluent used to augment river flows, restoration of wetlands and irrigation of agricultural crops. Similarly, desalination of sea water presents an important development and ‘game changer’ to secure a reliable supply of drinking water in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and where the global warming has drastically affected the normal water supply, as was experienced in California over the last 4 years. Supplementing the efforts of integrated water resources management and the mobilization of nonconventional water resources, trans-boundary water management going beyond national boundaries can help to alleviate the trend of depletion and degradation of shared water resources. International collaborative efforts to fight drought and water scarcity could serve as a catalyst for a comprehensive regional cooperation far beyond the mere dispute solution between upstream downstream water users.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Division of the Chemistry and Environment, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and Malta Conferences Foundation (MCF). The reviews of earlier versions, the additions, suggestions and the restructuring of the chapter according to the DPSIR model by Thomas Gross, Lena Breitenmoser and Christoph Hugi were substantial and are highly appreciated.

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