INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1734
(3) Arkansas Resources and Development Commission, Div. of Agriculture and Industry,” “Facts About Arkansas,” 1950, (4) Bituminous Coal Inst., “Bituminous Coal Annual,” 1949. (5) Cruickshank, James W., U.S. D e p t . Agr., Forest Survey Release, No. 35 (September 1950). (6) Cunningham, William A . , “A Survey of Texas Chemical Industry,” Austin, Tex., Univ. of Texas Press, 1949. (7) Cunningham, William A, “hlineral Resources of Texas,” in “Basic Industries of Texas and Northern hIexico,” New York Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (Sept. 25, 1946). (8) Dayton, William A., “Trees Yearbook,” U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1950. (9) Dott, Robert H., J . Am. W a t e r W o r k s Assoc., 37, 144-54 (1945). (IO) Ham, William E., Oklahoma Geol. Survey, B d l . , 65 (1945). (11) Houston Pipe Line Co., “Facts about the Gulf Coast,” 3rd ed..
1946. (12) Keller, R. K,, and Quirke, T. T., E c G ~Geol., . 34,287-96 (1939). (13) Oil Gas J., supplement t o 49, No. 20 (1950).
(14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
Vol. 43, No. 8
Ibid., 49,KO.50,193 (1951). Ibid., N o . 47, p. 329. Oklahoma Geol. Suroey, Circ. 13 to 27, inclusive. Oklahoma Geol. S u r c e y , “Mineral Map of Oklahma,” 1944. Oklahoma Geol. SurTey, M i n e r a l R e p . 1 to 22, inclusive, Snider, L. C., Oklahoma GeoZ. Suroey, Bull. 11 (1913).
Gniv. of Texas, Bur. Ecou. Geol., “Mineral Map of Texas,”
1944. (21) Univ. of Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Unir.. Texas Pub. No. 4301 (1943). (22) C . S. Bur. Mines, M i n e r a l M a r k e t R e p t . 1923 (1949). (23) U.S. Bur. Mines, “hfineral Yearbook,” 1948. (24) U. S. Dept. dgr., Bur. Agricultural Economics, “Agricultural Production Statistics,” 1949. (25) U. 9. Dept. Commerce, “Cottonseed Products, Statistic, Abstract of the United States,” 1939. RT.CIIT.ED April 16, 1951.
Water Supplies PAUL WEAVER GULF OIL CORP., HOUSTON, TEX.
I
1$ PARTS of the Census
Municipalities in the Southwest generally are not prein the per capita use of water pared to handle additional demands from large -water District that includes within the cities. This users because they have not been able to provide themsituation has drained the the four states of Arkansas, selves with reserve supplies, increased distribution sysresources of the plants Oklahoma, Louisiana, and which bring the water to tems, and disposal equipment above the increased deTexas, water supplies are mands resulting from their growth in population. Many the users and justifies very obtained from surface municipalities have potential sources of additional water careful study by, not only streams and in others from prospective builders of underground waters by supply which can be obtained by practicable engineering plants, but by the operaworks. There are also possibilities for developing private means of wells, but there water supplies near many cities, either from off-river tors of the manufacturing are few areas where both plants now within the city storage or from wells, at a reasonable cost. Competitive sources are available. In limits. However, operators demands for water, particularly for use in irrigation, must considering water supplies of manufacturing plants, by be taken into consideration i n estimating the potential for new manufacturing amount available for industry. New techniques for enand large, are not aware of plants and particularly for the importance of informing chemical plants in the suring additional water supplies, either public or private, themselves concerning fusuch as the utilization of underflow in stream valleys and Southwest, there may be ture water supplies, and underground recharge, have not been applied i n the problems involving more the primary purpose of this Southwest to any extent. These methods do offer possithan a proper quality of paper is to point out special bilities, however, and their use will provide additional water. problems which have arisen territory with adequate water supplies for chemical plants M o s t manu f a ct urin g within this area and which plants in the United States and other industrial operations. must be understood if presobtainwater from municipal ent and future plants are plants and dispose of waste to be operated with adequate, dependable, and continuous water water through municipal sewers. Therefore, availability of water supplies. for a new plant depends on whether the plant is to be located in A survey conducted by the National Association of Manufacan organized municipality or within one of the water districts and turers last year has been analyzed, and the results published in a whether these public supplies have a surplus for sale. I n some bulletin entitled ‘Water in Industry.” The data in this report areaa, t h e water supplies have already been appropriated for show that most operators of plants are little acquainted either with specific uses, and a new demand may require negotiation with the the prospects for additional capacity in production and distribuprior appropriators; a direct supply may not be possible. Lotion of water in their own municipalities or with the prospect that calities where public corporations, nhich furnish all the water for competitive demand for water by other types of activities would domestic and municipal users in the territory, have been enrestrict their own supply, particularly increased demand for use in gineered so that they are not only taking care of present deirrigation involving large quantities. It, therefore, is pertinent mands but have supplies available for future demands, would to discuss first the present water supplies of the municipalities be logical places to establish new industrial plants. within the area and secondly to consider the possibilities for Within this four-state district, there are today about 6% of the utilizing (in the absence of adequate supplies by public authorities) manufacturing plants of the United States. In the last decade sources of water not presently in production even if it means that these plants have increased their use of water per plant by 49% plants will have to set up their own production and distribution against an average for the whole country of 33%. If additional system. plants are to be built in the area, including a large number of The unsatisfactory situation regarding availability of water chemical ones, the municipalities supplying the plants should through municipal plants and through other public corporations, have provided for more increase in their water supplies than would such as the fresh water districts, has arisen almost entirely during be required merely for taking care of the population increase. the last decade, I n a few principal cities, situated alongside However, in addition to the great amount of water required for large rivers, the problem of water supply reduces to the problem the industries in the district, there has been an accelerated inof adequate engineering facilities for filtration and distribution. crease in the population of the municipalities and also an increase
A u d 1951
INDUSTRIAL AND ENG INEERING CHEMISTRY
Other cities located on rivers with great tluctnations in rate of flow and Borne that depend on relatively limited local underground water supplies can only increase their supplies by going further afield or by the construction of reservoirs. Within the laat decade it was di5cult to obtain either money or materials for building new utilities, and if the population had remained static within the cities, this would not have been serious. But within in populathe laat decade there have been tremendous incretion: thismust be appreciated to underatand the present situation of municipalities and their inadequate utility services. The population of Arkansas decreased 2% in the laat decade and Oklshoma decreased 4%, whereas the Louisiana population increased 13% and Texas 243%. The total incream in the district wan about 10% but even in counties where the rural populai tion decreased statistically, the areas mound the cities and towns showed an increase. All counties including important cities increased at a rate much higher than the average for the United Staterr. Twenty counties in these four states, each containing a city of more than 50,ooO population, have been responsible for an increase of 1,500,ooO people. Rates of increase almost this bigh have been noticed in smaller cities, particularly those which serve as centers of supply for industrial plants or oil fields. With this increase in population, there has been an accompanying sub-
173\
Keso,yt/rj
stantial per capita increase in water consumption, and the average for incorporated municipalities, currently in excess of 100 gallons per capita per day, represents almost 33% increase in the past 10 yeara. Many towns depend on the storage of water in reservoirs, and no less L A than 100 communities within this area have water sheds of leas than 100 SqUSre miles. h a u s e the majority of these me situated in the more arid part of the states, it not possible to increase the amount of stored water by increasing reservoir capacity. In cities that c a n use water stored in reservoirs in the streams with larger water &&,’there is usually considerable reserve capacity because these larger reservoirs have been built as,multipurpose dams and uaually involve sufficient flood control storage capacity to provide additional storage for additional city demands. The problems of storage of water from surface in this territory are perhaps a8 di5icult as in any part of the United States; the causes are inherent in the climate.
Fig. 1. Rainfall md m o r Stseam Runoff in the Southwest
m
ioUTHWI
‘ . I
1736
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Figure 1 shows the rainfall, the principal cities (those in excess of 50,000 population), and the principal rivers of the Southwest. The point a t which the total annual runoff is in excess of 1,000,000 acre feet is indicated for each river. The rainfall decreases from east to west across the territory from about 50 inches in Louisiana and Arkansas to about 10 inches in western Texas. If this rainfall were evenly distributed throughout the year, the flow of the surface streams wouId be quite regular and continuous, but as much as 100% of the average annual rainfall may occur in heavy rains within 24 to 48 hours. I n fact, the record shows that one rain, north of Del Rio in Texas, in 24 hours gave more than twice the average annual rainfall. Although this is the extreme, it is not unusual to have as much as 5 or 6 inches within 24 hours (as high as 25% of the total for the year). As a result the flow,, even in some of the larger streams, is subject to great variation. Figures as high as twenty times the mean flow and as low as less than 1/20 of the mean flow can be found in the records of almost any stream west of the line of 40inch annual rainfall. Storage on such streams must be designed t o store sufficient water during a long dry spell and must also be constructed with adequate spiIlways to handle exceptionally intense flood runoff. The total runoff of a river, therefore, in acre feet per year is much greater than the economically utilizable runoff, except as major storage facilities can be justified to store all the flow, as proposed for the Rio Grande by joint action between the United States and Mexico. This problem of great expense in river storage has been thoroughly studied, and much investigation has been made of the possibilities of off-river storage. In some locations-for example, Texas City-such reservoirs, servicing the chemical industry, have already been constructed. It is natural to ask here, to what extent the floods, due to severe rainfalls, have resulted in damages to municipalities. I n many parts of the Southwest, the proportion of the population living within the flood plain is less than in similar communities in the East, because dwellings are located on the higher ground primarily to take advantage of the circulation of air. Industries are generally close to workers’ houses, but are situated so that flood damage can be eliminated or minimized and the plants can still be serviced by the municipal water supply systems. The high costs of constructing adequate river storage have resulted in small reservoirs in many cities, and, therefore, an unsatisfactory reserve situation which has been accentuated because of failure to build storage during the last decade when the population was increasing and when financing and material shortages prevented enlarging the water supplies. The cities that depend on surface stream- have not met their own demands adequately during the past decade, nor have they supplied ample reserves except those which are within reach of one of the multipurpose damsfor example, on the Colorado River above Austin. Water supplies, wholly or in part from wells, also vary in volume. The Coastal Plain area, extending from the sea coast inland for 100 miles or more would be expected to have ample supplies because of the many sands found in the sub-surface. Unfortunately there has not generally been the infiltration of fresh water from the surface extending under the surface and through these sands to great depths; many contain brackish or salty water, in some cases, even at depths of several hundred feet. In other areas, fresh water of good quality, suitable for all general purposes, is found at depths of more than several thousand feet. The general distribution of this water is proved by the fact that nearly every community in east Texas and Louisiana, not situated on one of the larger rivers, derives an adequate supply of water from wells. Away from the Coastal Plain, there are also local sands and limestones that produce large quantities of general-purpose water-for example, at S a n Antonio, Tex., where some of the largest artesian wells in the world are exploited. However, large supplies of water from wells are not found everywhere in the
Vol. 43, No. 8
area, and in some cases supplies are already being used to such an extent that availability for industry is lessened-as in the enormous area of the so-called great plains of west Texas. There are possibilities in the flood plain area of some rivers for obtaining water in considerable quantities from wells of a very shallow depth, even where the flow of the stream itself is intermittent or of poor quality. Supplies from this type deposit, the so-called underflow, are already being exploited in Oklahoma. The infiltration of water into these river valley sands from the river itself is a natural process. A similar but artificial method comprises what is known as artificial recharge. I n some parts of the United States, notably a t Louisville, Ky., flood waters are injected through wells in seasons of high rainfall and are pumped out during the dry season. T h k method of obtaining more water supplies has not yet been carried out in the Southwest, but there are a number of places where it would be feasible, even to supply large municipal or industrial demands, The municipalities in some areas have to divide both their surface water supplies and their underground water supplies with other users, of which the largest are industrial and irrigation plants. This problem of dividing or allocating presently nvailable limited supplies is particularly evident in the lower Ria Grande Valley. Prospective industrial users of water must consider this problem of demands by others. I n general, most municipalities provide water to large consumers a t fair rates, and ale trying to service such customers. Assuming that deficiencies in municipal service of water cannot be remedied immediately, the alternative for a new plant is to installits own water supply, either fromsurface supplies or fromwells. The chance of a supply from surface streams is good where the rainfall is more than 40 inches but is generally unpromising elsewhere, especially where the rainfall is less than 30 inches. Supplies from wells vary in different parts of the district. I n Arkansas, the hilly part of the state has only small possibilities for the development of supplies from wells, except in the northwest where there are situated the only large natural springs in the state. I n the section of Arkansas that constitutes a part of the Mississippi Valley plain, sands at shallow depths have already proved adequate to supply extensive demands and are used in the irrigation of rice fields. The southern portion of the state, west of the Mississippi Valley, offers some fair water, ~ t s far as quality is concerned, from a zone running roughly east and west through El Dorado. Yields from individual wells would be rather small, with a maximum of 1,000,000 gallons per dag. I n Louisiana sands are quite generally found a t shallow depths and produce water of good quality, except in areas close to the coastline in the southern part of the state. Water from such shallow wells forms the basis for an extensive rice irrigation industry. I n Texas, there are several belts of shalloiv water which have large areal extent. One of these is in the vicinity of Houston, where in 1948 approximately 22,000,000,000 gallons of water were pumped from wells a t a cost of about 810.00 per million gallons on a power rate of 0.5 cent per kw.-hr. -4second belt extends across Texas, roughly from Lufkin, where the Southland Paper Mills are located, to near Laredo; in much of this area there are as yet no competitive utilizations of the underground water. A third area in Texas passes through San Antonio and extends both northward and westward. I n this belt there are some of the largest natural springs in the United States and also large artesian wells, Finally, in the western part of Texas, the Great Plains area has shallow sands; during the past 15 years about 20,000 wells have been drilled for the irrigation of more than 1,000,000 acres of land, which were formerly range lands. Although this is a big province in area and the total water supply is enormous, any industrial plant must expect competition for water supplies from the demands of irrigation. I n Oklahoma there are, generally speaking, no large amounts of usable underground water of good quality.
Augunt 1981
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
In all four of the states, along river valleys which are wide and atorage for water pumped from the stream8 at W s w . Substsntial p r o m has been made in defining them underground ahallow paaibilities in some of the Oklahoma valleys, where it has been mgnined that water pumped from the u n d d o w ahom improvement in quality. The construction of systems to utilize either underflow or &-river storage varies widely in cost and p m h b i l i t y from one location to a n o h . whether the pIanner of a new chemical plant expeota to ohtgin his water from a municipal system, already in operation, or to develop his own water upp ply, he must take into acwunt not only presently available supplies and potential additional s u p plies, but he mu& ale0 investigate the likelihood of wmpetitive demand8 for water before his plant is built. The largast increase in the UBB of water is in krigation projects and in the expansion of per capita demsnde for domestic we, including particularly the increased application of abconditiouing in reaidencee, factories, and offices and the increase in landscaping and small gardening. Expamion of irriition demands was mentioned in discussing
the Great Plaine of west Texas have been put in c a b crop despite the fact that the average rainfall is less than 20 inches. Here prolonged periods of drought can necavitate irrigation throngbout the entire growing 88aaon. similar expnnniona in i r r i i t i o n are evidmtly going to take place elsewhere in the region. Plant managers contanplatinglocation inthis district, therefore should determine to what extent the local community intend8 to use both current and potential water supplies for irrigation inatead of -wing them for industry. In some p k i t 8eam8 quite possible that a plan might be worked out whereby the water will be uaed first in industry and then delivered in suitable condition for irrigation. ~ n o n r v r~ ~
~16. 1951. ~ i
i
Construction Requirements C. W.ROBERTS THE H. L. ?ERQTISON CO., HOUSTON. IEI.
I n the four-stat. area then Mmany facton which &t ing did riae during the wet RE Southwest hne a little of all climates industrial corutrudion, making tha problem wmmhat a w n and did fall during dif6.nnt froom other m. Th.M o m d l c d in tha the dry n e m . The s t r u e because it hen land at e a paper includ. the doction of sit., foundation &, suitture proper changed elemlevel and a t "XI feet; it has regions with little or no ability and avdhbility of mat&. and .nathe~tion slightly, if at all. The rainfall, 86 well aa a cona s p e d d y rdnfdl and humidity. A dLcupon ' ofopen ditlereuce in movement b4 construction M op+ to dad construction L oiwn. tween the floor and the &elaidwahle area of real estate visible only at low tide. ter portion of the huildmg This paper, theu, will be caused all the trouble. Pipe lines connected to the equipment on the flcmr and anchored restricted to a disoussion of the Gulf Col~sta~ Plain; and gento the structure were either broken or badly bent. The conorete erally to conditione which are peculiar to Texas. The &uthwest haa m m l mditions not found elsewhere which affect floor, which wvered a %foot earth I31 over the original top sod, con&mct,ion operstione 88 well 88 wmpleted plante. An erwa as much aa 6 inches. Ma&nery waa thrown out of aliiment and elect"trical wnnections were broken. By the time repairs ginaer or aontnrctor must have an appreciation of conditions were made the ground water level would fall, the floor would penrliar to the GulfCoeat if he is to avoid expense, embstsrt down, and the breakkg of pipes and 6xed equipment would ment, and near disaster. Arranged m the order of appearance, but not neceassrily in start all over again. order of importance,tbees couditwns are: Inspection ravenled that all footingn were down to a fairly stable clay or caliche. Grade beams, or Iimt floor spandrel8, ex1. €w&ioll~ofni* tended mme 6 to 8 inches below the exterior grade. The area 2. Foundataonmda beneath the floor had been filled with materisl s e d from drive3. Suitability and availaqility of m a w s 4. Weather,cspeciauy ramfall and burmdity way and street excavation. The material w ~ wmmonly d known aa "black waxy" or "Teras gumbo," and any awt rise in the -ON OF SITE normal water table saturated the fill both by immersion and by Basic requkmnta for selection of rite are essentially the Bame capillary action. the world over. They are: m r c e a of raw material, available A report from Raymond Damn, aeaociate director of the mark&, mst of tranapOrtation, labor supply, foundstion wndiBureau of Engineering Research a t the University of Texaa, tions, and simikr itcons. of said that nocording to laborstory inveatigatione an e+on 80 to Zoo% of dry volume waa to be expected when such mils SOItB were saturated to their liquid limit. The laboratory bad re corded swelling pressuras in aced8 of 30,oOO pound8 per square Teras does not have extensive fdea.5 where goOa bearing mafoot. D a m n observed floors raked aa much 88 18 inch- above t e a m t be found at some reaeonable depth. This is in wnthe original level solely because of expsnaion of the MI material. to mch looationa aa New Orlesna, with ita depth of soft Probably the best known clays are the Taylor marl nnd the ooze, or Mexim City, with ita overburden of volcanic aah. In Eagle Ford &ale of central T e r n , and the Beaumont clay of the fact, m U mtmcbnw (oftenpoorly designed or built) along *e Gulf Coast area. Them clays contain varyhg amounta of benGulf cmst mdez more damage b y b e i i lifted than b y nettletonib, and, of wuree, the expansion Wries directly with the ment. In one instaoes a buil-, a m r d i n g to the owner, rose amount of bentonite or wlloidal particlea present. @om buildand fell with the tide. O k a t i n I.eveslsd that the owner's era have experimentad with miXing these expannive clays with statement w p only slightly exaggerated. The floor of the build-
T
