Sherida Houlihan H. Wotiz' Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Illinois 62901 and John
I I I
Women in Chemistry before 1900
Historians have accorded women a very small part in chemistry throughout the ages. However, the earliest recorded "chemists" were women. They were the Perfumeresses Tapputi-Belatekallim and ( )ninu. These names were found on cuneiform tablets of ancient Mesopotamia dating to about 2,000 B.C. The second name is not completely known because of hlanks on the tablet. The name Belatekallim means that Tapputi was a mistress of a household ( I ) and in charge of the manufacture of perfume. ( h i n u , is the author of an ancient text on perfumery (2). A typical list of tools for perfumery included a metal pot (diaqaru) and a lid, a measuring cup (kasu), a sieve (girbal), a ladle (migrafa), a large wcmden howl (qas'a) and an oven (tannur). All of these things could he found in an ancient kitchen. Instructions for carrying out the operations in perfumery were very similar to cooking instructions (3). Some origins of chemistry came from the mystic art of alchemy. One of the most prolific writers of the alchemical period was Zosimos of Panopolis, who lived -300 A.D. Some alchemist writings mentioned four women, Theosehia his sister, Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra, and Paphnutia the Virein. A great deal of controversy occurred between historians over the actual existence of Cleouatra and Marv the Jewess. Some writers maintain t h a t t h e Cleopatrabrominent in alchemy is not the Egyptian queen, hut others state there is no proof that she was not. Cleopatra is credited with the invention of the alembic or still, which was an important laboratory equipment of the early alchemists (41. Two of the early alchemical writings "Dialogue of Cleopatra and the Philosophers" and "The Gold-Making of Cleopatra" are also ascribed to Cleopatra. The latter is particularly important because it is one of the earliest known examples of the use of symbols for gold, silver, mercury. uossihlv lead-co~ueralloy. and arsenic in chemical wriii'ngs. ~ r a k i n g sare also inci"ded that illustrate her theme of the unity of all things, death, and revivification through a ..water.?' A drawing of a d~stillationapparatus is also shown (5. Some accounts mention Cleopatra's study of the solvent action of vinegar on pearls. Mary the Jewess was identified by several names; "The Jewess," "Maria Prophetissa," Miriam the sister to Moses and Aaron, and Maria the Jewess. Some historians question the fact that she actually existed (2). Mary is credited with some alchemical writings and the invention of the kerotakis and the Balneum Mariae (the prototype of an autoclave), and a water bath, which the French still call the bainmarie. The kerotakis was used for sublimation and as a still (6). She also discovered a material, Mary's Black, which had the required black hue needed in the alchemical production of "gold." It was purified by fusing a lead-copper alloy with sulfur. In the following thousand years women had very little direct influence on the evolution of chemistry. In 1666 Marie Meurdrac wrote La Chymie charitable et facile en Presented in part before the 166th ACS National Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, 1973. To whom inquiries should be addressed. 362 / Journal of Chemical Education
faveur des dames which is probably the first chemistry hook written by a woman (7). She considered chemistry to deal with objects that are mixtures of the three "basic principles" (salt, sulfur, and mercury), which can he separated by two general operations, "solution and congelation." The hook is divided into six parts that deal with: Laboratow onerations and weiehts. " . Se~arations.Animals. Metals, pieparation of medicinals, a n d ~ r e s e r v i hand ~ in: creasing the beauty of "Ladies." In her foreword Marie ~ e u r d r a cexpressed the opinion that she was the first woman that wrote a chemistry treatise. In 1758 Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze was born in France, the daughter of Jacques Paulze, a member of the Ferme-Gknerale. The Ferme was a tax collecting enterprise where private citizens collected taxes on a profit-sharing basis with the King. One of Jacques Paulze's colleagues in the Ferme was Antoine Lavoisier. In 1771 Jacques arranged a marriage between the pair even though Marie was only 14 and Lavoisier was twice her age. The large age difference seemed to make no difference and the couple was quite happy. Madame Lavoisier gave her husband a great deal of assistance in his scientific work. She translated the work of many contemporary British chemists into French, e.g. Kirwan's "Essay on Phlogiston" and "Strength of Acids and the Proportion of Ingredients in Neutral Salts" (8). This translation alsp showed that Marie had enough knowledge of chemical theory and practice to Eomment intelligently and constructively oh the work through footnotes of the translator. Some of Marie's best known accomplishments were the 13 illustrations for her husband's hook, "Trait? de Chimie," Paris, 1789. The original sketches and plates still exist and show her painstaking work. There are at least four different versions of each plate which vary in details of her corrections. She also puhlished Antoine Lavoisier's "Memoires de Chimie" after her husband was executed by the French revolutionists in 1794. He left behind the whole second, a large part of the first, and fragments of the fourth volume of a projected collection of eight volumes. He was correcting the proofs while he was in prison. Marie asked his former collaborator Seguin to assist her and write a preface. Since they quarreled, she wrote her own introduction and puhlished the memoirs in 1805. The Memoires were never put on sale hut Madame Lavoisier gave copies to the most distinguished scientist of the day (8).
After Antoine's death, she had many suitors. In 1801 or 1802 she met Count Rumford, founder of the Royal Institution. Rumford was 48 and she was 43. They seemed well suited for each other. They were both interested in science and liked to travel (8). The wedding took place in Paris in 1805. Marie insisted on retaining her first husband's name and was known as Madame Lavoisier de Rumford. Unfortunately their marital bliss soon turned to despair. The problem occurred because Rumford expected the marriage to give him financial security and that Marie would follow his every wish. However, Marie was used to living her own life and had no intention of giving up her independence. During the late 18th and the first half of the 19th cent ~ Jane , Marcet became one of the most important women in the history of early chemistry. Her "Conversa-
tions on Chemistry," was used as a textbook in Great Britain and the United States for 30 years. She was horn Jane Haldiman in London in 1769 to Swiss parents. In 1799 Jane married Alexander Marcet, a distinguished Swiss physician and chemist who worked on several ideas with Berzelius. Upon Jane's father's death she inherited a large fortune. Dr. Marcet resigned his post a t Guy's Hospital in London, gave up medicine entirely, and devoted all his time to experimental chemistry. He encouraged his wife's interest in science and made a great deal of information available to her through his numerous acquaintances and his broad knowledge of chemistry. This appears to he the only schooling Jane received in the scientific field (9). "Conversations on Chemistry" was first published anonymously in 1805. The public would not have reacted favorably to a hook on science v i t t e n by a woman. The format of the hook was an informal dialogue between Mrs. Bryan, the teacher, and Emily and Caroline, the pupils. Mrs. Bryan described the discoveries of Galvani, Volta, Franklin, Count Rumford, Priestley, Oersted, Berzelius, Berthollet, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Davy, and other important men in the field. In the preface to this hook she stated, "In venturing to offer the public . . . an introduction to chemistry, the author . . . a woman, conceives that some explanation may be required; and she feels it the more necessary to apologize for the present undertaking as her knowledge of the subject is but recent, and as she can have no real claims to the title of chemist" (9). The readers believed a man had to be the author of the work even after reading the preface. The hook was illustrated with woodcuts of lahoratory apparatus. Mrs. Marcet's book was left a t the bookbindery where Michael Faraday was a n .apprentice. Faraday credited Mrs. Marcet with being a primary reason for beginning his study of chemistry. Later, Faraday always sent Mrs. Marcet c o ~ i eof s his nuhlications (9) One of Jane Marcet's most important contributions was her method of teaching chemistry to begfnners through experimental demonstrations, a practice that was not yet accepted as a teachina method. Mrs. Marcet revised and corrected the later editions of her work as new discoveries and applications were made, e.g., gaslight, the miners lamn. electro-mametism. and the doctrine of Definite ~roportions(9). %hen Jane Marcet died in London in 1858 a t the age of 89, all of the world of science, and especially the field of chemistry, owed her a huge debt of gratitude. "Conversations of Chemistry" went through 16 editions. Jacob Berzelius appreciated the potential contribution with Maof women to chemistrv. He was verv- im~ressed . dame Lavoisier when-he visited her Paris salon in 1819. The Marcets and Berzelius were good friends and Berzelius was their constant visitor in London in 1812. Dr. Marcet helped Berzelius achieve recognition in the FrenchEnglish scientific circles.. In 1819 while he was abroad, Berzelius was elected secretarv of the Swedish Academv of Science and was aiven an apartment and laboratory in the house of the ~ E a d e my. Berzelius then needed to establish his household, and to-deal with that problem he wrote to one of his friends (101 I have thohght a great deal about how to organize my household, particularly with respect to service and I have decided to employ a maid rather than a man servant, who would be more
expensive and of little use. Anna, who is now employed at the Callins, has waited on me for almost ten years. She is the best maid I know of; she is careful, honest, prompt, and ugly, all qualities which a bachelor's maid should have, and I know that she has often been on the verge of leaving the Callin family. Talk to her on my behalf and ask her if she would like to continue to take care of my person and my reagents, and if she ac-
cepts the offer, then grant her whatever she wants in wages and board. Should she be difficult try to persuade her, for being an untidy person, I need someone I can rely on; furthermore she is already familiar with all my pieces of equipment and their names that I almost believe she could be started off right away distilling hydrochloric acid. Anna Christina Persdotter Sundstrom moved his apparatus and lahoratory equipment from his old residence before Berzelius returned from his travels. She was horn in 1795 and died in 1871 and dedicated 16 years of her life to the care of Berzelius' household and the cleaning of his lahoratory. Anna played a n important role in Berzelius' lahoratory and made a strong impression on his coworkers. Friends of Berzelius often remembered Anna in their letters with "kind regards and greetings." She was a very independent individual as seen in a letter from Berzelius to Wohler, "Anna sends many regards and says that Moses (Mosander) is a pig, and that of all the gentlemen who have been in the laboratory, none is a s neat as Dr. Wohler and none a s amiable as Henrik Rose." Wohler seems to have known Anna very well for he replies, "That 'die gute und gestrenge Anna' prefers to wash chemical glassware instead of plates and drinking glasses and would rather prepare hydrogen sulfide than food, is evidence of her scientific turn of mind. Please convey warmest greetings to her from one of her former pupils" (11). For a long time Berzelius held the view that chlorine was oxidized muriatic acid. This belief prompted a quotation which has become famous. In 1823, Anna remarked that the retort she was cleaning gave off a had odor of "oxymuriatic acid." Berzelius replied, "Listen, Anna, you should not say "oxymuriatic acid" any more, you should say "chlorine" instead. It is better" (12). In 1835 Berzelius married and his wife pressured him to dismiss Anna. Quite probably his bride was jealous of the respect and mutual admiration Anna and Berzelius had for each other, and felt their relationship threatened her importance. To keep the peace, Berzelius reluctantly let Anna go to find a new position. There are reports of two other women chemists a t the turn of the 18th century. However there is very little known about Elizabeth Fulhame except that she was the wife of a doctor and an early convert to Lavoisier's theory on combustion (131. In London in 1794 she published "Essay on Combustion." This publication generated a great deal of interest. Priestley mentioned her hook and experiments. Mrs. Fulhame performed some of the experiments for him in London. She also carried out experiments on the reduction of gold salts by light which were repeated by Count Rumford. Mrs. Fulhame says: "I shall endeavour to show, that the hydrogen of water is the only substance, that restores oxygenated bodies to their combustible state, and that water is the only source of the oxygen, which oxygenates combustible hodies." She was elected a n honorary member of the Philadelphia Chemical Society after the hook was reprinted there in 1810 (131. Mary Sommervile, (1780-1872) was interested in Faraday's work and they corresponded during 1833-4 (14). She was the author of "Connexion of the Physical Sciences" which was printed in a t least three editions. She revised her third edition to announce that "Dr. Faraday has proved, by recent experiments, . . . that chemical affinity is merely a result of the electrical state of the particles of the matter.'' In the United States Benjamin Rush set up a chemistry course for girls. In 1787 he was one of the organizers of the Young Ladies Academy in Philadelphia. His idea of education for girls was very straightforward; in a pioneer country, girls should learn useful, rather than entertaining subjects (151. Since chemistry and physics were constantly applied in the management of the home, they should be taught. The Rush-taught course contained seven lectures Volume 52. Number 6. June 1975 / 363
which brought forth basic chemical doctrines and showed the applications of chemistry to homemaking. He also performed a few experiments to illustrate his lectures. It is not known if the course was taught more than once. It should be obvious that the contributions of Maria Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) made her the most important woman scientist before 1900. Since her life and work is well known and recorded it is not reviewed here. The first known chemists were two women perfumeresses of ancient Mesopotamia. It seems logical that women would go into a science which is similar to cooking. Jane Marcet is not important today but during the middle of the 19th century her book influenced thousands of young chemistry students. Women like Jane Marcet and Marie Lavoisier were encouraged and aided by their husbands in their work, hut a t the turn of the 20th century, Pierre Curie was aiding his wife Maria. Since that time women are finding their rightful place in science and society. *Reference (161 contains on p. 41 mother interesting quote from Letters for Literary Ladies of unknown date: "Chemistry is a science particularly suited to women, suited to their talents and their situation; chemistry is not a science of parade, it affords occupation and infinite variety; . . ."
364
Journal of ChemicalEducafi~n
Thus the prophecy of T. P. Smith in 1798 was realized (16)? "I shall now present you with the last and most pleasing revolution that has occurred in chemistry. Hitherto we have beheld this science entirely in the hands of men; we are now about to behold women assert their iust. though too long neglected claims, of being participato;s in the pleasures arising from a knowledge of chemistry." Literature Cited I11 Farher, Edward, "Great ChcmisU."htolscience Publishers. NevYork, 1961. p. 3. 121 Iauey, Martin. "Chemistry and Chemical Te~hnologyin Ancient Mesapotamia," Elsevier. NewYork, 1959. p. 142. I31 Ref. (21. p. 134. New Ymk, 1937. p. 15. 141 Reed, John, "Prelude toChcmi8try,"M~~millan. I51 Taylor,FrankS.. "ThaAlehemistr."H. Schuman. New York, IY9.p. 58 ( 6 ) Rrf i i l n 89
Stockholm. 1966. p. 84. 1111 Ref. (101, p.86. I121 Ref. (101, p. 105. I131 Partington. James R., "A Histow of Chemistw." Maemillan, London, 1971, p. (14) Levere, Trevor H., "Affinity andMatter," CLarendonPreaa, London, 1371, p. 111. 115) Farbar.0~e l t , p.310. 116) Smith, Edgar F.. "Chemistry in America. Chapter. Fmm the History of the Science in the United States.'' D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1914. p. 35.
