Subscriber access provided by Duke University Libraries
Characterization of Natural and Affected Environments
Spatial Variability of Sources and Mixing State of Atmospheric Particles in a Metropolitan Area Qing Ye, Peishi Gu, Hugh Z. Li, Ellis S. Robinson, Eric M. Lipsky, Christos Kaltsonoudis, Alex K. Y. Lee, Joshua Schulz Apte, Allen L. Robinson, Ryan Christopher Sullivan, Albert A Presto, and Neil M. Donahue Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01011 • Publication Date (Web): 18 May 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 18, 2018
Just Accepted “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication. They are posted online prior to technical editing, formatting for publication and author proofing. The American Chemical Society provides “Just Accepted” as a service to the research community to expedite the dissemination of scientific material as soon as possible after acceptance. “Just Accepted” manuscripts appear in full in PDF format accompanied by an HTML abstract. “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been fully peer reviewed, but should not be considered the official version of record. They are citable by the Digital Object Identifier (DOI®). “Just Accepted” is an optional service offered to authors. Therefore, the “Just Accepted” Web site may not include all articles that will be published in the journal. After a manuscript is technically edited and formatted, it will be removed from the “Just Accepted” Web site and published as an ASAP article. Note that technical editing may introduce minor changes to the manuscript text and/or graphics which could affect content, and all legal disclaimers and ethical guidelines that apply to the journal pertain. ACS cannot be held responsible for errors or consequences arising from the use of information contained in these “Just Accepted” manuscripts.
is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Published by American Chemical Society. Copyright © American Chemical Society. However, no copyright claim is made to original U.S. Government works, or works produced by employees of any Commonwealth realm Crown government in the course of their duties.
Number Distribution
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50 100 1000 1000 50 100 50 50100 100 300 30 100 300 300 1000 1000 50 100 300 1000 100 30 1000 5050 100 300 1000 50100 100 300 300 1000 1000 50 ACS Paragon Plus Environment ddd (nm) (nm (nm (nm) dddva (nm (nm) (nm) dddva(nm) (nm) (nm) Diameter Diameter va va va va va vava
(B)
OOA SO4 BC
NO 3(B) HOA
Inorg-rich More oxy 1.0OA-rich Less oxy OA-rich COA-like
.0 In tunnels ghways
0/cc 38,000/cc
More oxy OA-rich More oxy OA-rich Inorg-rich Less oxy OA-rich COA-like Less oxy H (A)
Inorg-rich
SO4 BCOOA va
NO 3 HOA
(A)
dlogd va
h
Vehicle
1.0 BC-like Less oxy OA-rich COA-like 1.0 HOA-like
In tunnels
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 38,000/cc 1.0 Onwith highways In an a site In area with high traffic 5,000/cc high traffic 0.5
1.0
d d#/dlogd
va
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 In aInhighways site with In highways a site with In area with In an with Onan In a park On In aarea park tunnels high traffic high traffic high traffic high traffic 5,000/cc 5,000/cc 1,600/cc 1,600/cc 38,000/cc density density density density Inorganic In 6,500/cc 6,500/cc 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
dlogd va
(nm) (nm) va
COALe
Environmental Science & Technology
Vehicle
d d#/dlogd va
300
Number Distribution
1.0 1.0 1.0 Inhighways aInsite with In an area with On tunnels high traffic high traffic 5,000/cc 38,000/cc density density 0.5 0.5 0.56,500/cc
Normalized d#/dlogd va
Page 1 of 28
ways nels c 00/cc
00
Normalized d#/dlogd va
LessMore oxy OA-rich COA-like BC-like oxy OA-rich Less oxy COA-like Inorg-rich More oxyHOA-like OA-rich Less oxy OA-rich Inorg-rich More oxyHOA-like OA-rich (A) (A)OA-rich
ch
NO 3 HOA
In tunnels On highways 1.0 1.0 5,000/cc38,000/cc 1.0 1.0 1.0 In a site with an area with In aIn park high traffic traffic 0.5 1,600/cc 0.5 high density
OOA BC
1.0 HOA-like BC-like 1.0 highways In an a On site with In area with high traffic 1.0 high 5,000/cc 1.0 traffic 1.0 density In a park density 1,600/cc 0.5 0.5 6,500/cc
HO
1.0
0.5
Environmental Science & Technology
Spatial Variability of Sources and Mixing State of Atmospheric Particles in a Metropolitan Area Qing Ye,† Peishi Gu,†,‡ Hugh Z. Li,†,‡ Ellis S. Robinson,†,‡ Eric Lipsky,¶ Christos Kaltsonoudis,† Alex K.Y. Lee,§ Joshua S. Apte,k Allen L. Robinson,†,‡ Ryan C. Sullivan,†,‡ Albert A. Presto,†,‡ and Neil M. Donahue∗,† †Carnegie Mellon University, Center for Atmospheric Particle Studies, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA ‡Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA ¶Penn State Greater Allegheny, 4000 University Drive, McKeesport, Pennsylvania 15132, USA §National University of Singapore, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Singapore 117576 kUniversity of Texas, Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Austin, Texas 78712, USA E-mail:
[email protected] 1
Abstract
2
Characterizing intra-city variations of atmospheric particulate matter has mostly
3
relied on fixed-site monitoring and quantifying variability in terms of different bulk
4
aerosol species. In this study, we performed ground-based mobile measurements using
5
a single-particle mass spectrometer to study spatial patterns of source-specific particles
i
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 2 of 28
Page 3 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
6
and the evolution of particle mixing state in 21 areas in the metropolitan area of Pitts-
7
burgh, PA. We selected sampling areas based on traffic density and restaurant density
8
with each area ranging from 0.2 to 2 km2 . Organics dominate particle composition in
9
all of the areas we sampled while the sources of organics differ. The contribution of par-
10
ticles from traffic and restaurant cooking varies greatly on the neighborhood scale. We
11
also investigate how primary and aged components in particles mix across the urban
12
scale. Lastly we quantify and map the particle mixing state for all areas we sampled
13
and discuss the overall pattern of mixing state evolution and its implications. We find
14
that in the upwind and downwind of the urban areas, particles are more internally
15
mixed while in the city center, particle mixing state shows large spatial heterogeneity
16
that is mostly driven by emissions. This study is to our knowledge, the first study to
17
perform fine spatial scale mapping of particle mixing state using ground-based mobile
18
measurement and single-particle mass spectrometry.
19
Introduction
20
Atmospheric particulate matter is one of the least understood aspects of human-caused cli-
21
mate change. 1 In addition, exposure to atmospheric particles is strongly associated with
22
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. 2–4 The physiochemical properties of particles, de-
23
termined by their sources and atmospheric processing, governs their climate and health
24
effects. 5,6 The mixing state of particles, defined as the distribution of chemical species in
25
a particle population, influences particles’ optical properties, 7,8 their ability to nucleate
26
clouds, 9–11 their tendency to participate in chemical reactions 12 and potentially their health
27
effects. 13 Atmospheric processing such as coagulation but also evaporation and condensation
28
of low- and semi-volatile compounds will mix various constituents and homogenize com-
29
position among particles from different sources. 14–16 Therefore, mixing state measurement
30
can constrain the influence of local and regional sources and identify important atmospheric
31
processing. 17
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
32
Real-time single-particle mass spectrometers measure the size, chemical composition and
33
mixing state of individual particles. 18–21 They have been widely used to study particle
34
sources, chemical evolution and mixing state at fixed sites. 22–26 Single-particle measurements
35
have also been conducted on mobile platforms, mostly on aircraft or ships, which can cover
36
large areas over a relatively short time period and thus are able to characterize the spatial
37
variability of particle composition. 27–30 However, very few studies have performed on-road
38
mobile single-particle measurements in urban areas.
39
In 2010, more than 80% of the U.S. population lived in urban areas. 31 Influenced by
40
intensive, complex human activities and the large variation in land use types and micro-
41
environments, air pollution in urban areas is highly complicated, dynamic and has sharp spa-
42
tial gradients. 32,33 Studies have used ground-based mobile measurements to investigate the
43
intra-city gradients of ambient atmospheric pollutants on spatial scales down to neighborhood-
44
and street-level. 32–36 These studies mainly used standard instrumentation and did not mea-
45
sure particle mixing state.
46
Particle mixing state is expected to be spatially heterogeneous across an urban area.
47
Based on the proximity to emission sources in the city, pollution levels and particle composi-
48
tion vary among emission plumes (e.g. traffic areas), urban background areas and suburban
49
areas, as shown in Fuzzi et al. 37 However, the relative strength of these different categories
50
is not well constrained, nor is the variation from one metropolitan area to another. Espe-
51
cially uncertain is the variation among these categories in particle number and mixing state.
52
Particles in places close to traffic emissions are found to be dominated by hydrocarbon like
53
organic aerosols (HOA) 35,38 while in urban background locations and urban downwind loca-
54
tions, particles are found to be complex internal mixtures of carbonaceous aerosols, either
55
primary or secondary, and secondary inorganic species such as sulfate, ammonium and ni-
56
trate. 25,39–41 These studies are all fixed-site measurements that are not sufficient to resolve
57
the spatial pattern and evolution of single-particle sources and address the question of how
58
quickly do particles from various sources mix in the cities.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 4 of 28
Page 5 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
59
Mixing state may affect toxicity of particles as different compounds can work synergis-
60
tically to enhance the adverse health effects. 13,42 Ristovski and coauthors found that the
61
adsorbed organic compounds on the surface of diesel particles will trigger the cellular pro-
62
cesses that may lead to inflammation and oxidative stress. 43 Overall, studies on effects of
63
mixing state on human health are limited but extensive measurements of particle mixing
64
state in populous urban areas can provide meaningful guidance on studying the health ef-
65
fects of particles.
66
Here we perform particle mixing-state measurements as part of the Center for Air, Cli-
67
mate and Energy Solution (CACES). We performed ground-based mobile measurements of
68
the composition of ambient single particles to investigate mixing state at the neighborhood
69
level in Pittsburgh, PA and surrounding areas. We developed a sampling strategy to span a
70
range of conditions based on the anticipated intensity of traffic and restaurant cooking emis-
71
sions, coupled with variation in land use types. Our sampling domains cover upwind subur-
72
ban areas, the city center near emission sources and downwind urban background/suburban
73
areas. This constitutes a transect to systematically study two key questions: 1) how do local
74
and background sources affect particle composition and 2) how does particle mixing state
75
vary and evolve across the urban area.
76
Materials and Methods
77
Overview of Stratified Mobile Sampling
78
We conducted measurements with a mobile platform of atmospheric chemistry measurement
79
housed in the Carnegie Mellon Center of Atmospheric Particle Studies (CAPS) mobile lab-
80
oratory (a Nissan van); a detailed description can be found in Tan et al. 44 and Li et al. 45 A
81
list of instruments on the van can be found in the Supplementary Information. This work
82
focuses on the data from the soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SP-AMS, Aerodyne
83
Inc.). We see negligible self-sampling of the van’s exhaust. When the van is moving, we do
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
Table 1: Mobile sampling areas classified by traffic and restaurant density. Numbers in parentheses are number of particles analyzed of each area. Numbers in circles correspond to the numbers in Figure 5 which shows the location for each area.
High traffic
Low traffic
High restaurant Strip district (9.1K) , 1 Lawrenceville (3.1K) , 2 Downtown (11K) , Squirrel Hill 3 (4.3K) , 4 Southside (12.5K) 5
Highland Park neighborhood (2.8K) , Dormont (2.4K) , 12 13 Restaurant plumes (4.9K)
Low restaurant Chartiers high school (1.7K) , 6 Children’s Museum (4.6K) , 7 Aspinwall (1K) , Uptown (3K) , 8 9 Millvale (1.7K) , Ivory Ave 10 (1K) , 11 Tunnels (2.7K), Highways (2.8K) South Fayette (1.1K) , 14 Carnegie neighborhood (5.8K) , Schen15 ley Park (2.8K) , Beechview 16 (2.8K) , 17 Hill district (3.9K) , 18 Mt. Washington (3.7K) , 19 Fox chapel (1.4K) , Highland park 20 (1K) 21
84
not expect sampling from the exhaust because the aerosol inlet is upstream of the exhaust
85
above the roof of the van. When the van is not moving with the engine on, we do not see
86
any increase of particle mass measured by the AMS.
87
We conducted the sampling in August, September (late summer season), December, Jan-
88
uary and February (winter season) in the City of Pittsburgh, PA and surrounding suburban
89
and rural areas in Allegheny County. With a population of 300 thousand, Pittsburgh locates
90
at the confluence of the Allegheny, Ohio and Monongahela rivers. It has a long history of
91
combined air pollution from various industrial and commercial sources. In our study, we em-
92
ployed two principal sampling modes: mobile sampling in which we drove the van through
93
different neighborhoods, and stationary sampling in which we parked the van at the Carnegie
94
Mellon University (CMU) campus. Measurements at the CMU campus constitute an urban
95
background with no large local sources. For mobile measurements around Pittsburgh, we
96
selected 21 neighborhoods based on traffic and restaurant density, two major local sources
97
in Pittsburgh. Neighborhoods were selected to span a wide range of these two land-use
98
covariates. Each neighborhood is an area of 0.2-2 km2 and is relatively homogeneous with
99
respect to land use covariates.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 6 of 28
Page 7 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
100
Table 1 classifies all 21 areas based on traffic and restaurant density. High traffic density
101
areas are those having an average of more than 50 vehicle/day/m (annual average, data
102
from Pennsylvania Department of Transportation 46 ). Low traffic density areas are those
103
having an average of fewer than 50 vehicle/day/m. Calculation of traffic density can be
104
found in the Supplementary Information and is the same as in Li et al. 36 High restaurant
105
density areas are those with 30 or more restaurants per km2 (data from Allegheny County
106
Information Portal 47 ) and low restaurant areas are those with 30 or fewer restaurants per
107
km2 . There are 21 areas in total augmented by three additional data ensembles representing
108
extreme emissions encountered when we sampled inside restaurant plumes, in tunnels and
109
on highways. The summary map at the end of the paper, Figure 5, also shows the area
110
locations.
111
The complete dataset comprises 53 total visits for the 21 areas; we did not visit any areas
112
more than once within a day. During each visit of an area, we tried to cover all of the roads
113
and streets within the area once (with some exceptions that when we encountered traffic
114
detours, we might have covered some streets more than once). Sampling time in each visit
115
of an area ranged between 30 minutes and 1 hour. We avoided following buses or trucks
116
when driving. We visited each area 1 to 6 times. We show the number of visits to each
117
area in Table S1 in the Supplementary Information. For the areas visited multiple times
118
we selected different hours of the day (rush hour, non-rush hour; meal time and non-meal
119
time) to try avoid bias towards time of the days with high or low emissions. Sampling
120
time ranged from 6 AM to 11 PM. Immediately before or after each visit to collect single-
121
particle data in an area, we conducted a similar visit in the same area to collect AMS
122
bulk data (conventional AMS V-mode measurement). All of our sampling occurred during
123
weekdays free of precipitation. For 13 of the 21 areas, we also have long-term stationary
124
real-time measurement of PM2.5 throughout the entire campaign (details found in Li et al.,
125
manuscript in prep). Using the data from those stationary sites, we confirmed that the
126
days when we have single-particle measurements are typical without significantly high or
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
127
low pollution levels (daily concentration fell between 10% and 90% of all days during our
128
sampling seasons).
129
Event-trigger Single-Particle Mass Spectrometry
130
The mission-critical instrument in this study is a real-time soot-particle aerosol mass spec-
131
trometer (SP-AMS) with an event-trigger single-particle mode (Aerodyne, Inc.). Details
132
of the SP-AMS have been published in Onasch et al. 48 A more detailed description of the
133
instrument can be found in the Supplementary Information. The SP-AMS measures non-
134
refractory aerosol components as well as refractory black carbon (rBC). It does not measure
135
road dust, which is an important particle type in urban environments. However, road dust
136
exists primarily in the super-micron size range, so we do not expect it to be a major source
137
for particles transmitted through the aerodynamic lens in the AMS. Air flow entering the
138
SP-AMS is dried to less than 7% relative humidity by a Nafion dryer (Perma Pure LLC).
139
During event-trigger single-particle measurements, the 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser was on con-
140
tinuously to measure soot particles. During bulk measurements, the laser was off in order
141
to minimize any uncertainty in the relative ionization efficiency induced by the IR laser 48,49
142
and consequently to obtain accurate bulk particle mass quantification. Those bulk data are
143
the subject of a complementary manuscript. Due to the low transmission efficiency of very
144
small and supermicron particles in the inlet of the AMS, here we only study particles ranging
145
from 50 – 1000 nm. In this paper we mostly focus on the single-particle data. An extensive
146
analysis of bulk data from this campaign can be found in another paper from our group
147
(manuscript in prep).
148
The event-trigger (ET) mode obtains mass spectra from individual particles if the signals
149
they generate surpass user-defined signal thresholds in specified regions of interest (ROIs).
150
Each ROI is a mass-to-charge range and an associated ion signal threshold. When the AMS
151
is operating in ET mode, the mass spectrometer runs continuously and firmware on a fast
152
data acquisition card evaluates the ROIs on-line. If an event surpasses the ROIs threshold,
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 8 of 28
Page 9 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
153
its mass spectrum is recorded and downloaded to the computer and this event is treated as a
154
single particle. The ROIs used in this study are m/z 41 to m/z 43 ≥ 4 ions; m/z 45 to m/z
155
150 ≥ 5 ions and m/z 36 ≥ 3 ions (C3 + for black carbon detection) with logical “OR” filters
156
to combine the ROIs into a single boolean trigger. These threshold values are determined
157
before the campaign by sampling particle-free air and by laboratory generated particles
158
to ensure that the thresholds are neither too low that they trigger too much background
159
signals nor too high that we miss too many particles signals. Data are processed by Tofware
160
developed by Tofwerk. Single-particle analysis is based on the cluster analysis panel (CAP)
161
developed by Lee et al. 38 with customized modifications. We first perform k-means clustering
162
with k=30 for all the particle spectra collected in each area. We then combine the clusters
163
with similar spectra based on the knowledge of mass fragments in the AMS. 51 We ultimately
164
categorize the particles into seven different groups as discussed below. In total, we analyzed
165
470 thousand individual particles and 92 thousands of them were acquired during mobile
166
sampling.
167
Results and Discussion
168
Single-particle Characterization
169
We first compare the overall bulk chemical composition of particles measured by the AMS
170
when the van is parked at CMU campus, which represents the urban background, with
171
corresponding ET ion signals. The upper panel of Figure 1 shows the composition of PM1
172
derived from AMS bulk measurements without using the SP laser in Summer 2016 (August)
173
and Winter 2017 (January and February). To this we add Black Carbon as measured by the
174
Aethalometer. The average non-refractory PM1 mass from AMS was 11 and 6 µg m−3 for
175
Summer and Winter, respectively, assuming a collection efficiency of 0.5. Organics dominate
176
PM1 in both seasons (59% in summer and 36% in winter), followed by sulfate in the summer
177
from strong photo-oxidation of SO2 and nitrate in the winter from elevated formation of
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
178
ammonium nitrate due to high residual ammonia and low temperatures. Compared to the
179
nearby urban background site for the Pittsburgh Air Quality Study conducted in 2001 –
180
2002, there is a significant reduction in sulfate content. 52 During 2001 – 2002, sulfate mass
181
concentration exceeded organics in PM2.5 . Fifteen years later the sulfate mass is less than
182
half that of organics in PM1 .
183
The lower panel in Figure 1 shows the aggregated ion signal for all detected particles from
184
ET measurements at CMU campus during the same sampling periods. Similar to the bulk
185
composition, the single-particle data are also dominated by organics (69% in summer and
186
51% in winter) with a smaller contribution from sulfate and nitrate. In Figure S1 and Figure
187
S2, we also compare the hourly composition observed in the single-particle mode and the bulk
188
measurement mode for a 48-hour continuous measurement. The reduced fraction from black
189
carbon measured by SP-AMS compared to the bulk measurements by Aethalometer may be
190
due to the low transmission and detection efficiency of black carbon particles smaller than 50
191
nm in the AMS inlet and incomplete overlapping between laser and the particle beam. 49,53
192
The region-of-interest-based trigger of measurement in the ET mode may introduce bias by
193
selectively acquiring particles producing specific ions. In addition, signals from the bulk
194
measurement have been converted to mass assuming different relative ionization efficiency
195
for different chemical species, which may also introduce some differences in single particle
196
and bulk composition. Nonetheless, there is a high correspondence between the bulk and
197
single-particle measurements.
198
Next, we characterize the single-particle mass spectra we detected at the CMU campus.
199
We assign each individual particle to one of seven groups and show the average cluster
200
spectra in Figure 2. Broadly, the clusters appear to consist of four background types and
201
three near-source primary types. We assign names to the clusters based on comparisons with
202
reference mass spectra. The reference spectra for primary particles are collected when we
203
sampled in the tunnels and inside restaurant plumes when the sources of fresh emissions are
204
almost exclusively traffic and restaurant cookings, respectively.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 10 of 28
Page 11 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
205
The background clusters include one inorganic rich and two organic rich types during
206
each season. The inorganic-rich clusters favor sulfate in the late summer and nitrate in the
207
winter. The organic-rich background clusters comprise one with relatively more oxygenated
208
organic aerosols (OA) and one with relatively less oxygenated OA. The highest signal of the
209
more oxygenated OA-rich mass spectrum is m/z 44 (CO+ 2 ) while the highest signal of the
210
less oxygenated OA-rich mass spectrum is m/z 43 (mostly C2 H3 O+ ).
211
The primary clusters are hydrocarbon OA-like (HOA-like), cooking OA-like (COA-like)
212
and black carbon-like (BC-like). In Figure S3, we compare the mass spectra of HOA-
213
like and COA-like clusters with source-specific particles from the AMS spectra database
214
(http://cires1.colorado.edu/jimenez-group/AMSsd/) and show that they agree well, with
215
r2 > 0.85. The spectrum of the BC-like cluster contains fragments of C+ , C2 + and C3 + .
216
We also present the fraction of organic signals in each cluster (denoted as forg ). Even the
217
inorganic-rich and BC-like clusters contain a significant fraction of organics. We do not
218
include ammonium in the single-particle analysis due to the large interference from water.
219
Spatial Variability of Source-specific Particles
220
We designed the sampling protocol to assess the spatial variability of source-specific par-
221
ticles, covering locations with significant differences in emissions of traffic and restaurant
222
cooking. The major particle types associated with primary emissions are from traffic (HOA-
223
like particles) and restaurant cooking (COA-like particles). Figure 3A shows the number size
224
distributions normalized by the highest bin concentration of particles measured by ET in the
225
winter broken down into different cluster classes for areas with a range of traffic emissions,
226
ranging from a tunnel to a park without local emissions. Due to the decreasing detection
227
efficiency of particles with decreasing sizes, the signals drop at lower size range especially
228
under 100 nm. However, measuring single particles mass spectra down to 50 nm is com-
229
pelling. In Figure S4 in the Supplementary Information, we show the SMPS scaling curve
230
of number concentration for the ET-AMS. Figure 3 and Figure 4 are presented as detected
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
231
by the ET-AMS. We also show the absolute total particle number concentrations (10 – 400
232
nm in mobility diameter) measured by the Nanoscan SMPS.
233
As Figure 3A show, particles collected in tunnels show a significant peak from HOA-like
234
particles with a mode around 100 nm as measured by the AMS. This mode also appears on
235
highways and in other high-traffic areas but as a lower fraction of the total particle count. In
236
contrast, in places like parks with very low local traffic emissions, the traffic mode essentially
237
disappears. In all areas, background particle types consistently dominate the accumulation
238
mode.
239
Figure 3B shows the breakdown by different ions rather than by cluster type. We de-
240
convolve the organic signals into HOA and OOA using the methods described in Zhang et
241
al., 54 essentially the relative fraction of f57 and f44 . As with the clusters, HOA dominates
242
the 100 nm mode in tunnels, on highways and in high traffic areas. Tunnels have a higher
243
fraction of BC than other locations and a lower fraction of OOA, possibly due to less photo-
244
chemistry. There is much more BC based on ions than just the “BC-like” cluster, as many
245
HOA-like particles contain BC. Figure 3A and Figure 3B reveal a difference between the
246
cluster classification and the overall ion composition. The “inorganic rich” cluster generally
247
exceeds the “organic rich” clusters in terms of particle numbers, except on highways where
248
they are evenly split. However, the fraction of ions from OOA is comparable to the fraction
249
of ions from sulfate and nitrate in the accumulation mode, and the highway samples are
250
unexceptional. This implies that the inorganic-rich cluster contains a considerable amount
251
of oxygenated OA signal, and that inorganics and OOA are internally mixed in all of these
252
locations, though in varying proportions. This is confirmed by the fraction of organic signal
253
(forg ) in the inorganic-rich clusters shown in Figure 2. We shall explore this below.
254
In Figure 4 we plot the size distribution of particles organized by proximity to restaurants
255
of selected areas. The left column is an extreme case where we parked our van inside a
256
restaurant plume. The middle column is downtown area with high restaurant density, and
257
the right column is a residential neighborhood with few restaurants. We again show the
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 12 of 28
Page 13 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
258
breakdown in terms of clusters in Figure 4A and ion composition in 4B. Because cooking
259
OA contains more oxygenated carbon than HOA, we do not perform a simple deconvolution
260
of the OA signal but simply report all OA as a single composition group. The particle cluster
261
types in these locations show a drastic difference. The restaurant plume is essentially pure
262
COA-like, and pure OA. The PM1 inside the plume measured by the bulk mode of AMS is
263
close to 100 µg/m3 assuming collection efficiency of 1. A significant portion of particles are
264
COA-like in downtown, showing that restaurant cooking is an important source. This was
265
a day when we sampled during dinner time. At other times, the contribution of COA-like
266
particles in the downtown is less. The non-negligible fraction of COA-like particles in the
267
suburban residential area could be transported restaurant COA or COA from household
268
cooking. The ion distribution from the Figure 4B shows that in all of these areas, organics
269
are the major contributor to particle composition; however particles collected downtown are
270
dominated by fresh emissions with an average O:C of 0.19 and particles collected in the
271
suburban residential area contain more aged organics with an average O:C of 0.59.
272
Evolution of Particle Mixing State Across the Metropolitan Area
273
We have shown the large spatial variability of particle composition and ion types in an urban
274
area by grouping particles using a relatively simple clustering analysis and looking at the
275
fractional contribution of different clusters to the entire particle population. We next will
276
investigate how particles with various origins evolve and mix across the city. To do this we
277
segregate the sampling locations into three categories: upwind suburban areas, urban areas
278
near sources and urban background/downwind urban areas. We then compare the mixing
279
state of particles in these three areas.
280
To study the evolution of mixing state we focus on three representative ions (or ion
281
groups): f44 (the signal fraction of m/z 44, CO+ 2 , associated with oxygenated aged organics),
282
fSO4 (from sulfate) and f55 + f57 (C4 H7 + , C3 H3 O+ and C4 H9 + , associated with primary
283
organics from traffic and cooking emissions). We show the results for selected types of ion
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
284
pairs in Figure S5 in the Supplemental Information. Upwind particles largely contain a
285
mixture of sulfate and aged organics; however, in urban locations near emission sources,
286
most of the particles are on one axis or the other, indicating that sulfate and primary
287
organics are externally mixed. The internally mixed particles in urban near-source locations
288
are likely transported in from the upwind suburban locations. In the urban background,
289
more particles are internally mixed, containing sulfate and primary organics, but they are
290
less abundant than in upwind suburban areas. Also, in upwind suburban locations, a large
291
fraction of the particles contain oxygenated organics with few or no primary organic ions.
292
In urban near-source locations and the urban background, the particle population becomes
293
fresher and less oxygenated, with a reduced fraction of particles containing both fresh and
294
oxygenated signals.
295
Using the data we collected in all 21 areas described in Table 1, we create a map of particle
296
mixing state for Pittsburgh, shown in Figure 5. To quantify the mixing state we use the χ
297
metric developed in Riemer and West. 56 This parameter describes how chemical species (in
298
this work, organics, sulfate, nitrate, chloride and black carbon) distribute in single particles
299
with respect to the entire particle populations. More calculation details can be found in the
300
Supplementary Information and in Riemer and West. 56 The parameter χ can range from
301
0% to 100% with 0% meaning particles in a population are completely externally mixed and
302
100% meaning completely internally mixed. In an urban background site in Paris, χ has a
303
mean value of 59%, 41 about midway between a complete internal and a complete external
304
mixture.
305
In Pittsburgh, we calculate χ for each area we visited, averaging χ over all of the visits
306
in each area. In Figure 5 we color code each area according to χ. The number next to each
307
area corresponds to the number in Table 1. We also include an hourly averaged wind di-
308
rection frequency distribution recorded at Pittsburgh International Airport for the period of
309
our single-particle collection (www.wunderground.com). The prevailing winds in Pittsburgh
310
are southerly or westerly, and our sampling areas are designed to follow a path along the
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 14 of 28
Page 15 of 28
311
Environmental Science & Technology
prevailing wind direction.
312
The upwind areas (areas , which are rural or suburban locations, have high 14 15 and ), 6
313
mixing state metric χ of 60%– 70%. Closer to the city center (e.g. areas with 17 and ), 13
314
increased emissions from human activities, particles progressively become more externally
315
mixed. Areas in the city center have low χ values. The particle population in downtown
316
(area ) has χ = 43%. Area , 3 11 though it is approximately 5 km north of the city center,
317
is a small neighborhood sandwiched between an interstate highway and a busy road; with
318
χ = 36% it has the highest degree of external mixing of any area we sampled. In the
319
downwind areas the particles once again become progressively more internally mixed, with
320
an increased χ value, as air moves into suburban areas with fewer emission sources. However,
321
the downwind particle population is still more externally mixed than the upwind areas.
322
We also quantified the sub-grid variability of χ in an area with high emissions (downtown
323
) and in an area with low emissions (Schenley Park ) 3 16 by subdividing each area into
324
smaller boxes with side length of 300 m in longitude and latitude. The bar chart (Figure
325
S6) in Supplementary Information indicates the average χ of the sub areas and the standard
326
error of the mean of the χ of the sub areas. There is a slightly larger sub-area variability
327
of particle mixing state in downtown where sources are more spatially variable, while the in
328
Schenley Park which is a large urban park (∼300 acre) with few roads, particle populations
329
are more homogeneous. Although there may be sub-grid spatial variability of particle mixing
330
state inside each area, the overall trend across the entire sampling domain is clear.
331
Given the fact that we only visited some areas for a limited number of times, our data
332
are not designed to be representative of long-term particle mixing state and source appor-
333
tionment in any individual area, nor do they contains information on temporal variability of
334
mixing state in any areas. However, we perform stratified sampling by grouping the areas
335
based on emission levels and choose sampling areas located along the prevailing wind direc-
336
tion. We detected and analyzed a large number of particles (several thousands or more) in
337
each area, which should be representative to the entire particle population in those areas.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
338
We believe our work provides an overview of the evolution of particle mixing state across an
339
urban area due to the influence of local sources and transport.
340
Implications
341
We observe a significant spatial variability of particle mixing state in Pittsburgh mostly
342
driven by variations in emissions. By conducting mobile measurements with a state-of-the-
343
art real-time single-particle mass spectrometer, we are able to quantify this variability by
344
measuring the fraction of different particle types and then mapping particle mixing state
345
on the neighborhood scale. Primary organic aerosols are reasonably volatile, 14 and thus the
346
semi-volatile constituents are expected to migrate among particle populations easily. We find
347
significant external mixing of particles persists in the urban center and urban background.
348
This could be due to inhomogeneous distributions of components other than organics in
349
particle populations. For example, sulfate is enriched in particles that have passed through
350
power-plant plumes but depleted in particles generated from cooking and low-sulfur diesel
351
fuels.
352
Our data imply that a large fraction of people in Pittsburgh and presumably many
353
other urban areas are exposed to highly externally mixed particles. While we find that in
354
Pittsburgh, traffic and restaurant cooking are the two major contributors to ambient PM1 ,
355
future studies should cover areas with other potential important PM sources such as the
356
coke plants in the southern Allegheny County.
357
Associated Content
358
Supporting Information
359
360
Instrumentation details, mobile laboratory details, mixing state metric quantification, supporting table and figures.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 16 of 28
Page 17 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
361
Acknowledgement
362
This publication was developed under Assistance Agreement No. RD83587301 awarded by
363
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. It has not been formally reviewed by EPA. The
364
views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
365
those of the Agency. EPA does not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned
366
in this publication. This work is also supported by U.S. National Science Foundation under
367
grant ATM1543786, MRI−CBET0922643 and CHE-1412309. We also want to thank Faculty
368
for the Future Fellowship from the Schlumberger Foundation.
369
References
370
371
(1) Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; IPCC, 2014.
372
(2) Wichmann, H.-E.; Peters, A. Epidemiological evidence of the effects of ultrafine particle ex-
373
posure. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical
374
and Engineering Sciences 2000, 358, 2751–2769.
375
(3) Pope III, C. A.; Dockery, D. W. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that
376
connect. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 2006, 56, 709–742.
377
(4) Nel, A. Air pollution-related illness: effects of particles. Science 2005, 308, 804–806.
378
(5) Lohmann, U.; Feichter, J. Global indirect aerosol effects: a review. Atmospheric Chemistry
379
and Physics 2005, 5, 715–737.
380
(6) Valavanidis, A.; Fiotakis, K.; Vlachogianni, T. Airborne particulate matter and human health:
381
toxicological assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative
382
damage and carcinogenic mechanisms. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C
383
2008, 26, 339–362.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
384
(7) Moffet, R. C.; Prather, K. A. In-situ measurements of the mixing state and optical properties
385
of soot with implications for radiative forcing estimates. Proceedings of the National Academy
386
of Sciences 2009, 106, 11872–11877.
387
(8) Lesins, G.; Chylek, P.; Lohmann, U. A study of internal and external mixing scenarios and
388
its effect on aerosol optical properties and direct radiative forcing. Journal of Geophysical
389
Research: Atmospheres 2002, 107, 4094–4106.
390
(9) Sullivan, R.; Moore, M.; Petters, M.; Kreidenweis, S.; Roberts, G.; Prather, K. Effect of
391
chemical mixing state on the hygroscopicity and cloud nucleation properties of calcium mineral
392
dust particles. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2009, 9, 3303–3316.
393
(10) Wang, J.; Cubison, M.; Aiken, A.; Jimenez, J.; Collins, D. The importance of aerosol mixing
394
state and size-resolved composition on CCN concentration and the variation of the importance
395
with atmospheric aging of aerosols. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2010, 10, 7267–7283.
396
(11) Ching, J.; Fast, J.; West, M.; Riemer, N. Metrics to quantify the importance of mixing state
397
for CCN activity. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2017, 17, 7445–7458.
398
(12) Ryder, O. S.; Ault, A. P.; Cahill, J. F.; Guasco, T. L.; Riedel, T. P.; Cuadra-Rodriguez, L. A.;
399
Gaston, C. J.; Fitzgerald, E.; Lee, C.; Prather, K. A.; Bertram, T. H. On the role of particle
400
inorganic mixing state in the reactive uptake of N2O5 to ambient aerosol particles. Environ.
401
Sci. Technol 2014, 48, 1618–1627.
402
(13) Highwood, E. J.; Kinnersley, R. P. When smoke gets in our eyes: the multiple impacts of
403
atmospheric black carbon on climate, air quality and health. Environment International 2006,
404
32, 560–566.
405
(14) Robinson, A. L.; Donahue, N. M.; Shrivastava, M. K.; Weitkamp, E. A.; Sage, A. M.;
406
Grieshop, A. P.; Lane, T. E.; Pierce, J. R.; Pandis, S. N. Rethinking organic aerosols:
407
semivolatile emissions and photochemical aging. Science 2007, 315, 1259–1262.
408
409
(15) Robinson, E. S.; Saleh, R.; Donahue, N. M. Organic aerosol mixing observed by single-particle mass spectrometry. J Phys Chem A 2013, 117, 13935–45.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 18 of 28
Page 19 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
410
(16) Ye, Q.; Upshur, M. A.; Robinson, E. S.; Geiger, F. M.; Sullivan, R. C.; Thomson, R. J.;
411
Donahue, N. M. Following particle-particle mixing in atmospheric secondary organic aerosols
412
by using isotopically labeled terpenessotopically labeled terpenes. Chem 2018, 4, 318–333.
413
(17) Schwarz, J. et al. Measurement of the mixing state, mass, and optical size of individual black
414
carbon particles in urban and biomass burning emissions. Geophysical Research Letters 2008,
415
35 .
416
(18) Sullivan, R. C.; Prather, K. A. Recent advances in our understanding of atmospheric chemistry
417
and climate made possible by on-line aerosol analysis instrumentation. Analytical Chemistry
418
2005, 77, 3861–3886.
419
420
(19) Zelenyuk, A.; Imre, D. Single particle laser ablation time-of-flight mass spectrometer: an introduction to SPLAT. Aerosol Science and Technology 2005, 39, 554–568.
421
(20) Cross, E. S.; Slowik, J. G.; Davidovits, P.; Allan, J. D.; Worsnop, D. R.; Jayne, J. T.; , D. K. L.;
422
Canagaratna, M.; Onasch, T. B. Laboratory and ambient particle density determinations using
423
light scattering in conjunction with aerosol mass spectrometry. Aerosol Science and Technology
424
2007, 41, 343–359.
425
(21) Gemayel, R.; Hellebust, S.; Temime-Roussel, B.; Hayeck, N.; Elteren, J. T. V.; Wortham, H.;
426
Gligorovski, S. The performance and the characterization of laser ablation aerosol parti-
427
cle time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LAAP-ToF-MS). Atmospheric Measurement Techniques
428
2016, 9, 1947–1959.
429
(22) Willis, M. D.; Healy, R. M.; Riemer, N.; West, M.; Wang, J. M.; Jeong, C.-H.; Wenger, J. C.;
430
Evans, G. J.; Abbatt, J. P.; Lee, A. K. Quantification of black carbon mixing state from
431
traffic: implications for aerosol optical properties. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2016,
432
16, 4693–4706.
433
(23) Qin, X.; Pratt, K. A.; Shields, L. G.; Toner, S. M.; Prather, K. A. Seasonal comparisons of
434
single-particle chemical mixing state in Riverside, CA. Atmospheric Environment 2012, 59,
435
587–596.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
436
(24) Healy, R. M.; Sciare, J.; Poulain, L.; Crippa, M.; Wiedensohler, A.; Pr´evˆot, A. S.;
437
Baltensperger, U.; Sarda-Est`eve, R.; McGuire, M. L.; Jeong, C.-H.; McGillicuddy, E.;
438
O’Connor, I.; Sodeau, J.; Evans, G.; Wenger, J. Quantitative determination of carbonaceous
439
particle mixing state in Paris using single-particle mass spectrometer and aerosol mass spec-
440
trometer measurements. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2013, 13, 9479–9496.
441
(25) Moffet, R.; Foy, B. d.; Molina, L. a.; Molina, M.; Prather, K. Measurement of ambient aerosols
442
in northern Mexico City by single particle mass spectrometry. Atmospheric Chemistry and
443
Physics 2008, 8, 4499–4516.
444
(26) Lee, A. K.; Willis, M. D.; Healy, R. M.; Wang, J. M.; Jeong, C.-H.; Wenger, J. C.; Evans, G. J.;
445
Abbatt, J. P. Single-particle characterization of biomass burning organic aerosol (BBOA): ev-
446
idence for non-uniform mixing of high molecular weight organics and potassium. Atmospheric
447
Chemistry and Physics 2016, 16, 5561–5572.
448
449
(27) Sullivan, R.; Guazzotti, S.; Sodeman, D.; Prather, K. Direct observations of the atmospheric processing of Asian mineral dust. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2007, 7, 1213–1236.
450
(28) Gaston, C. J.; Quinn, P. K.; Bates, T. S.; Gilman, J. B.; Bon, D. M.; Kuster, W. C.;
451
Prather, K. A. The impact of shipping, agricultural, and urban emissions on single particle
452
chemistry observed aboard the R/V Atlantis during CalNex. Journal of Geophysical Research:
453
Atmospheres 2013, 118, 5003–5017.
454
(29) Cahill, J. F.; Suski, K.; Seinfeld, J. H.; Zaveri, R. A.; Prather, K. A. The mixing state of
455
carbonaceous aerosol particles in northern and southern California measured during CARES
456
and CalNex 2010. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2012, 12, 10989.
457
(30) Price, D. J.; Chen, C.-L.; Russell, L. M.; Lamjiri, M. A.; Betha, R.; Sanchez, K.; Liu, J.;
458
Lee, A. K.; Cocker, D. R. More unsaturated, cooking-type hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol
459
particle emissions from renewable diesel compared to ultra low sulfur diesel in at-sea operations
460
of a research vessel. Aerosol Science and Technology 2017, 51, 135–146.
461
(31) https://www.census.gov.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 20 of 28
Page 21 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
462
(32) Apte, J. S.; Messier, K. P.; Gani, S.; Brauer, M.; Kirchstetter, T. W.; Lunden, M. M.; Mar-
463
shall, J. D.; Portier, C. J.; Vermeulen, R. C.; Hamburg, S. P. High-resolution air pollution
464
mapping with Google street view cars: exploiting big data. Environmental Science and Tech-
465
nology 2017, 6999–7008.
466
(33) Tan, Y.; Lipsky, E. M.; Saleh, R.; Robinson, A. L.; Presto, A. A. Characterizing the spatial
467
variation of air pollutants and the contributions of high emitting vehicles in Pittsburgh, PA.
468
Environmental Science and Technology 2014, 48, 14186–14194.
469
(34) Hankey, S.; Marshall, J. D. Land use regression models of on-road particulate air pollution
470
(particle number, black carbon, PM2.5, particle size) using mobile monitoring. Environmental
471
Science and Technology 2015, 49, 9194–9202.
472
(35) Mohr, C.; Richter, R.; DeCarlo, P. F.; Pr´evˆ ot, A.; Baltensperger, U. Spatial variation of
473
chemical composition and sources of submicron aerosol in Zurich during wintertime using
474
mobile aerosol mass spectrometer data. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2011, 11, 7465–
475
7482.
476
(36) Li, H. Z.; Dallmann, T. R.; Li, X.; Gu, P.; Presto, A. A. Urban organic aerosol exposure:
477
Spatial variations in composition and source impacts. Environmental Science and Technology
478
2017,
479
480
(37) Fuzzi, S. et al. Particulate matter, air quality and climate: lessons learned and future needs. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2015, 15, 8217–8299.
481
(38) Lee, A.; Willis, M.; Healy, R.; Onasch, T.; Abbatt, J. Mixing state of carbonaceous aerosol
482
in an urban environment: single particle characterization using the soot particle aerosol mass
483
spectrometer (SP-AMS). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2015, 15, 1823.
484
(39) Vester, B. P.; Ebert, M.; Barnert, E. B.; Schneider, J.; Kandler, K.; Sch¨ utz, L.; Weinbruch, S.
485
Composition and mixing state of the urban background aerosol in the Rhein-Main area (Ger-
486
many). Atmospheric Environment 2007, 41, 6102–6115.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
487
(40) Zhang, G.; Bi, X.; He, J.; Chen, D.; Chan, L. Y.; Xie, G.; Wang, X.; Sheng, G.; Fu, J.;
488
Zhou, Z. Variation of secondary coatings associated with elemental carbon by single particle
489
analysis. Atmospheric Environment 2014, 92, 162–170.
490
(41) Healy, R. M.; Riemer, N.; Wenger, J. C.; Murphy, M.; West, M.; Poulain, L.; Wiedensohler, A.;
491
O’Connor, I. P.; McGillicuddy, E.; Sodeau, J. R.; Evans, G. Single particle diversity and mixing
492
state measurements. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2014, 14, 6289–6299.
493
(42) Wilson, M. R.; Lightbody, J. H.; Donaldson, K.; Sales, J.; Stone, V. Interactions between
494
ultrafine particles and transition metals in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology and Applied Pharma-
495
cology 2002, 184, 172–179.
496
497
(43) Ristovski, Z. D.; Miljevic, B.; Surawski, N. C.; Morawska, L.; Fong, K. M.; Goh, F.; Yang, I. A. Respiratory health effects of diesel particulate matter. Respirology 2012, 17, 201–212.
498
(44) Tan, Y.; Dallmann, T. R.; Robinson, A. L.; Presto, A. A. Application of plume analysis
499
to build land use regression models from mobile sampling to improve model transferability.
500
Atmospheric Environment 2016, 134, 51–60.
501
502
Page 22 of 28
(45) Li, H. Z.; Dallmann, T. R.; Gu, P.; Presto, A. A. Application of mobile sampling to investigate spatial variation in fine particle composition. Atmospheric Environment 2016, 142, 71–82.
503
(46) Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access. http://www. pasda.psu.edu/uci/DataSummary.aspx?dataset=56.
504
(47) Allegheny County Information Portal. http://infoportal.alleghenycounty.us/data.html.
505
(48) Onasch, T.; Trimborn, A.; Fortner, E.; Jayne, J.; Kok, G.; Williams, L.; Davidovits, P.;
506
Worsnop, D. Soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer: development, validation, and initial
507
application. Aerosol Science and Technology 2012, 46, 804–817.
508
(49) Willis, M.; Lee, A.; Onasch, T.; Fortner, E.; Williams, L.; Lambe, A.; Worsnop, D.; Abbatt, J.
509
Collection efficiency of the soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SP-AMS) for internally
510
mixed particulate black carbon. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 2014, 7, 4507–4516.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 23 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
511
(50) Jimenez, J. L.; Canagaratna, M. R.; Drewnick, F.; Allan, J. D.; Alfarra, M. R.; Middle-
512
brook, A. M.; Slowik, J. G.; Zhang, Q.; Coe, H.; Jayne, J. T.; Worsnop, D. R. Comment on
513
“The effects of molecular weight and thermal decomposition on the sensitivity of a thermal
514
desorption aerosol mass spectrometer”. Aerosol Science and Technology 2016, 50, i–xv.
515
(51) Allan, J. D.; Delia, A. E.; Coe, H.; Bower, K. N.; Alfarra, M. R.; Jimenez, J. L.; Middle-
516
brook, A. M.; Drewnick, F.; Onasch, T. B.; Canagaratna, M. R.; Jayne, J. T.; Worsnop, D. R.
517
A generalised method for the extraction of chemically resolved mass spectra from Aerodyne
518
aerosol mass spectrometer data. Journal of Aerosol Science 2004, 35, 909–922.
519
(52) Wittig, A. E.; Anderson, N.; Khlystov, A. Y.; Pandis, S. N.; Davidson, C.; Robinson, A. L.
520
Pittsburgh air quality study overview. Atmospheric Environment 2004, 38, 3107–3125.
521
(53) Ahern, A. T.; Subramanian, R.; Saliba, G.; Lipsky, E. M.; Donahue, N. M.; Sullivan, R. C.
522
Effect of secondary organic aerosol coating thickness on the real-time detection and characteri-
523
zation of biomass-burning soot by two particle mass spectrometers. Atmospheric Measurement
524
Techniques 2016, 9, 6117.
525
(54) Zhang, Q.; Worsnop, D.; Canagaratna, M.; Jimenez, J. Hydrocarbon-like and oxygenated
526
organic aerosols in Pittsburgh: insights into sources and processes of organic aerosols. Atmo-
527
spheric Chemistry and Physics 2005, 5, 3289–3311.
528
529
530
531
(55) Esri,
“Light
Gray
Canvas
Map”,
http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?
id=ed712cb1db3e4bae9e85329040fb9a49. (56) Riemer, N.; West, M. Quantifying aerosol mixing state with entropy and diversity measures. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2013, 13, 11423–11439.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
Page 24 of 28
BulkBulk mass composition mass Jan and winter Feb 2017 composition
Bulk mass composition Bulk mass August 2016 composition summer
8% (0.5) < 1% (< 0.1) 13% (0.9)
8% (0.9) 7% (0.8) 36% (2.3) 22% (2.6)
59% (7.0) 4% (0.5)
ET ionsET composition ions August composition2016 summer 2% 4%
15% (1.0) Org NO3 SO 4
NH 4 Chl BC
26% (1.7)
ET ions composition ET ions Jan and Feb 2017 composition winter 4%
12%
23% 13% 51% 2% 69% 21% Figure 1: Mass composition derived from AMS bulk measurements (upper panel) and ion composition derived from single-particle ET measurements (lower panel) during Summer 2016 (August) and Winter 2017 (January and February) from CMU campus. The blackcarbon (BC) values were derived from a co-located Aethalometer. Numbers in parentheses are the absolute mass concentrations (in µg/m3 ) measured by the AMS assuming a collection efficiency of 0.5. CMU campus represents an urban background environment for the City of Pittsburgh. The estimated error in OA measurement is ± 38%. 50
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 25 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
0.15
Background particle clusters Freshly-emitted particle clusters Background particle clusters Background particle clusters Primary particle clusters Freshly-emitted particle clusters Background particle clusters Primary particle clusters 0.10 0.15 Inorganic-rich summer Inorganic-rich summer forg = 0.64 0.10 0.64 forg =0.05
0.10 0.05 0.00
0.00 40
20
0.1 20
0.3 0.2 0.1 20
0.2
0.2 0.1 0.0 40 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 40 0.2
0.1 0.0
Fractional ion signals
Fractional ion signals
0.3
0.2
0.0
f
0.05
HOA-like = 0.95 org
f
0.05
0.3
0.0
0.10
0.1 20
0.0 40
0.00
20 0.00 40 120 0.10 Inorganic-rich winter Inorganic-rich winter f = 0.32 org f =0.05 0.32 0.05 org
60 20
80 40
100 60
120 80
100 0.10
0.00 0.00 100 20120 40 0.6 0.6 More oxy OA-rich More oxy OA-rich = 0.80 f org 0.80 forg = 0.3 0.3
60 20
60 20
80 40
80 40
100 60
100 60
120 80
120 80
0.0 0.0 20 40 100 120
Less oxy OA-rich Less oxy OA-rich forg = 0.83 = 0.83 f org
60 80 20 40 m/z
100 60 m/z
120 80
60 20
80 40
60 20
80 40
100 60
Org NO3 SO 4
120
100
120
COA-like forg = 0.95 120 80
BC-like f = 0.39 org 60 80 20m/z 40
org
120 80
COA-like forg = 0.95
Chl BC
100
100 60
HOA-like = 0.95
100
120
BC-like f = 0.39 org
100 120 60 80 m/z
100
120
Org NO3 SO 4
Chl BC
Figure 2: Individual particles collected during mobile sampling are grouped into seven clusters based on their unit mass spectra. Shown here are the average mass spectra for each cluster. Each unit mass (m/z) is color-coded by chemical species classes that generate signal with that unit mass, as shown in the color legend. We broadly treat the first three clusters (inorganic rich, more oxygenated OA rich and less oxygenated OA rich) as background particles and treat the last three clusters (hydrocarbon OA (HOA)-like, cooking OA (COA)like and black carbon (BC)-like clusters) as primary particles. Fraction of organic signals (forg ) is also shown for each clusters.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
Normalized d#/dlogd va
(A)
Inorg-rich
More oxy OA-rich
1.0
1.0 On highways
In tunnels 38,000/cc
5,000/cc
0.5
0.0
50 100
300
0.0 1000
50 100
va
Normalized dion/dlogd
In an a site In areawith with high traffic traffic high density density
300
0.0 1000
va
NO 3
OOA
HOA
50 100
HOA-like
In a park 1,600/cc 0.5
300
0.0 1000
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
300
dva (nm)
0.0 1000
50 100
300
dva (nm)
300
1000
BC
1.0
50 100
50 100
dva (nm)
1.0
0.0
BC-like
1.0
d (nm) va
d (nm)
va
SO4
COA-like
0.5 6,500/cc
0.5
d (nm)
(B)
Less oxy OA-rich
1.0
Page 26 of 28
0.0 1000
50 100
300
dva (nm)
0.0 1000
50 100
300
1000
dva (nm)
Figure 3: Number size distributions normalized by the highest bin concentration for areas with various levels of traffic emissions. Panel A shows the distribution broken down into contributions from the six identified particle cluster types. Total particle number concentrations measured by the NanoScan SMPS are also shown in Panel A. Panel B shows the distribution broken down based on ions composition. Background particles have a similar ion composition across these areas with a dominant peak in the accumulation mode. In contrast, HOA particles and ions show a drastic difference depending on proximity to traffic emissions.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Page 27 of 28
Environmental Science & Technology
Inorg-rich
Normalized d#/dlogdva
(A)
1.0
0.5
0.0
More oxy OA-rich
Less oxy OA-rich
1.0
Inside a restaurant plume
98μg/m3
0.5
50 100 300 d (nm)
0.0 1000
va
SO 4
Normalized dion/dlogd va
(B)
NO3
Org
Downtown: high restaurant density
8,600/cc
50 100 300 dva (nm)
COA-like
1.0
0.0 1000
A suburban residential area: site: low restaurant density
50 100 300 dva (nm)
1000
BC
1.0
1.0
0.5 O:C = 0.15
0.5 O:C = 0.19
0.5
50 100 300 dva (nm)
BC-like
0.5 2,700/cc
1.0
0.0
HOA-like
0.0 1000
50 100 300 d (nm)
0.0 1000
va
O:C = 0.59
50 100 300 d (nm)
1000
va
Figure 4: Size distributions normalized by the highest bin concentration for particular areas with various levels of restaurant-cooking emissions. PM1 in the restaurant plume measured by the AMS assuming collection efficiency of 1 is close to 100 µg/m3 . Total particle number concentrations measured by the NanoScan SMPS are also shown in Panel A for downtown and the residential area. Panel B shows the distribution broken down based on ions composition and O:C values for organic constituents. COA is a major contributor to particles in places like downtown with high restaurant density while in some residential areas with few restaurants, the major cluster types are background particles.
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
Environmental Science & Technology
0
1
2
4
6
Page 28 of 28
8 Kilometers
⑳
Mixing state metric χ 2
70% more internally mixed
1.8 1.6
⑪
1.4
⑧
1.2 1 0.8
⑩
0.6 0.4
30% more externally mixed
0.2 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0.3 NW 0.2 0.1 0 W
⑲ ③
NE
SE S
②
⑱ ⑨
④ ⑤ ⑯
E
SW
⑭
Downtown
N
⑦ ①
㉑ ⑫
⑮
⑰ ⑬
⑥ Esri, HERE, DeLorme, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS user community
Figure 5: A map of the mixing-state parameter χ, which ranges from 0% to 100% with 0% being a fully externally mixed and 100% being fulling internally mixed population. The average χ for each area we visited ranged from 30% to 70%. The border of Pittsburgh city is outlined in black on the map, indicating areas with more intensive human activities. The hourly wind direction frequency distribution for the sampling period is shown as an inset. The overall pattern shows that in the upwind rural and suburban areas to the southwest, particles are more internally mixed. In the city center, where the emissions from traffic and restaurant cooking are high, particles are more externally mixed. In the downwind areas to the northeast, particles again become internally mixed but not as completely as in upwind areas. Base map sources: Light Gray Canvas Map, Esri, DeLorme, HERE, MapmyIndia. 55
ACS Paragon Plus Environment