Air Pollution FREDERICK G. SAWYER STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE, STANFORD, CALIF.
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OTHING is constant or in combination \\ith oihcr Rapid population growth of many western cities has fobut change. This has substances cause the various cussed attention to periodic murkiness of the atmosphere. been especially true in the effects associated with air Much publicity has been given to Los Angeles smog. A Far West, where during the pollution? four-year study by Stanford Research Institute indicates past 20 years, masses of mithat the daily burning of nearly 50,OOO tons of fuels and grating easterners have built rubbish is the principal cause of Log Angeles smog. ReLOCAL PROBLEMS cities, changed the land use, search shows further that this burning by the public and The Past. A background started new industries, deindustry emits to the air each day at least 2000 tons of for studying western action veloped the natural resources, chemicals which can cause poor visibility, eye irritation, on air pollution can be gained and thereby changed markand other smog effects. The community aspects of air by brief discussion of a few edly the regional economy. pollution complicate the means for abatement. Signifihistoric cases. All these growth processes cant pollutants are emitted from automotive engines and Just across the internatook place in the East, but backyard incinerators, as well as industry. Industry’s tional border in Trail, British at a slower pace, and in responsibility to the community makes it necessary that Columbia, the Consolidated most cases before the memory its house be in order. I t is good public relations to be a Mining and Smelting Co. of present planners. good neighbor by abating nuisance effluents. Enlightened poured out about 600 tons of With the quick urbanizamanagement will regard potential air pollution as an imsulfur dioxide daily during tion of former desert areas, portant factor in plant location. A scientific study of the twenties. Crop damage health r e s o r t s , p r i m e v a l wastes discharged to the air and their dissipation by was observed a few miles forests, and scenic spots, the meteorological conditions may save some of the cost of down the Columbia River problems of eastern cities decorrective equipment. Air pollution regulations are bevalley in the State of Washscended q u i c k l y o n t h e coming more stringent. Only scientific study and indusington. After lengthy hearw e s t e r n co u n t e r p a r t s try cooperation can ensure intelligent legislation conings by the International Among the problems is the cerning air pollution abatement. Joint Boundary Commission, pollution of air by man’s the company installed reactivities. The continued covery measures and erected a large by-product plant designed rapid growth of the region will doubtless worsen the problem. to recover two thirds of the waste sulfur dioxide. Except for some areas near the Utah coal deposits, western A few years later, more crop damage occurred near Trail, B. C., cities operate exclusively on a hydroelectric and petroleum and awards t o farmers totalled $78,000. Subsequent study energy econoniy. Almost all fuel is either natural gas or oil. showed that the crop damage was not caused by gases moving Consequently, Boot, smoke, and fly ash are not the important down the river gorge at ground level, but by simultaneous culprits that they are in the polluted air of eastern cities. There fumigation of a 40-mile region by descent of a continuous air is a growing awareness of the importance of the invisible emislayer, The meteorology of the area proved to be the governing sions-the fumes and gases as air pollutants. Much research is factor. A central control office was set up to receive weather being devoted to determining their toxic levels, practical abate‘data and sulfur dioxide readings which were recorded conment, and chemical behavior in the atmosphere over a city. tinuously at stations many miles down the Columbia River. The term “smog” has been borrowed (1) and applied prinWhenever weather conditions indicate an oncoming fumigation cipally to air pollution in Los Angeles, Calif. It is a useful term of this type, the roasters are shut down (37). The problem is now because it is short, easy t o say, and means all things to all men. licked. Smog may be defined briefly as “polluted air that causes nuiDuring the early 1 9 0 0 ’ ~Anaconda, ~ Mont., discovered that sance.” I n this definition, nuisance is an all-inclusive name for horses, cows, and sheep were being poisoned by arsenic found in decreased visibility, health detriment, odor, eye-nose-throat hay and range grasses. Although the copper smelter was built irritation, damage to vegetation, and any other effects associated with high stabks and 6,000,000 cubic feet of settling chamber and with a polluted atmosphere. flue space, arsenic trioxide particles were detected downwind as Sulfur oxides and fluorides are common atmospheric pollutants, far as 35 miles. Lack of knowledge about particle size and disand yet knowledge concerning the effects of these substances on tribution at the time the plant was designed was later considered vegetation and animals is Ear from complete. Much research continues in the Weet. Much more will have to be done before to be the cause of the problem. Installation of electrostatic precipitators solved the problem in 1910 (37). experts will agree more often than disagree on evaluating the effectsof these substances (16). Weather as a factor in controlling industrial effluents ~ l a s demonstrated many years ago at the Murray smelter near Salt Knowledge about sulfur dioxide and fluorides is useful as far as it goes, but how about the thousands of other fumes and gases Lake City, Utah. Studies showed that vegetation damage that can exist in the urban atmosphere-the aldehydes, acids, caused by sulfur dioxide could occur only when four weather ozone, ketones, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, organic perconditions existed simultaneously in that locality. The temperaoxides, ozonides, and many others? Do they by t,hemselves ture had to be above 5” C.; the relative humidity over 70%;
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Air
Pollution
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FREDERICK G. SAWYER STANFORDRBSEIRCH
msmm. STANFORD. CALIP.
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OTIIINC is constant Rapid population growth of many westcities has foor in combination with other but change. This has c d attention to periodic murkiness of the atmosphere. substances cause the vaiious been esWial?y true in the Much publicity ham been given.to L w Anmles smog. A e5ecta associated with air Fsr West, where during the four-year study by &anford R u a c c h Institute indicates pollution? Past 20 YearS, masses of mithat the d d y burning of nearly 50.000 toM of fueb and easterners have built rubbish is the principal cause of Log A n g e h smog. ReL O C U PROBLEMS c*es, changed the land use, -h shorn further that this burning by the public and industry emits to the air each day at least 2ooo tom of The Past A background stgrted new industries, dec-& which can cause paor &ility. we irritation, for EtUdYing western action veloped t h e n a t m l resources, -d smog & k t s . mecommunity -ts of & on air pollution can be gained and thereby changed markpollution complicate the for abatement: sionifiby brief discussion of a few d l y the regional economy. All growth processes cant pollutants Memitted fmm automotive enginesand historic a s . t w k place in *he h t , but backyard 5nanmton. well as industry. Industry’s Just acrose the intema-0daty to the community &it tht tional border in Trail, British at a slower pace, and in most beforethe memory ib b in order. It public nl&onm to a Columbia, the Consolidated of present. planners. goodneighborbyabatingnuiaan~efnuents. Enlightened Mining and Smelting a. -nunt d +p o t m a air pollution -an poured out about 600 tone of With the quick urbanize A w t i f i c study of sulfur dioxide daily during tion of former desert a m , po+t &tor in p h t loution. health resorts, p r i m e v a l d i r w to the th& by the twenties. Crop damage nuhr~logicalconditionm m y -W MIM of the.c& of was ob=rved a few miles fad, and scenic spots, the probleme of eastern cities deoomotiW dpunt. ~ i r -l.tiW b- down the Columbia River scended q u i c k l y o n t h e -mino .trinmnt. only d n t i f i C and valley in the State of Washwestern c o u n t e r p a r t s . try coop.mtion u n ?- int.,uiwnt ]+tion conington. After lengthy hearAmong the problem is the gminp ak pollution & h m t . ings by the International pollution of air by m ’ s Joint Boundary Commission, activities. The continued the company installed rerapid growth of the e o n will doubtless worsen the problem. covery measures and erected a large by-product plant designed Except for some a m near the Utah coal deposits, western to recover two thirds of the wastesulfur dioxide. cities openrte exclusively on a hydroelectric and petroleum A few years later, more crop damage occurred near Trail, B. C., and awards to farmers totafled $76,000. Subsequent study energy econoniy. Almost all fuel is either natural gas or oil. Caneequeutly, soot, smoke, and fly ash are not the important showed that the crop damage waa not caused by gaaes moving culprits that they are in the polluted air of eastern citias. Them down the river gorge at gmund level, but by simultaneous is a growing awareness of the importance of the invisible emiafumigation of a’4O-mile region by dement of a continuous air layer. The meteorology of the area proved to be’the governing eiom+he fumes and gases aa air pollutants. Much research is being devoted to determining their toxic levels, practical abatefactor. A central contml o5ce waa set up to receive weather ment, and chemical behavior in the atmosphere over a city. ‘data and sulfur dioxide readings which were recorded COP The term ”smog” has been borrowed (I) and applied printinuously at stations m a y miles down the Columbia River. cipslly to air pollution in Loa Angeles, Calif. It is a useful term Whenever weather conditions indicate an oncoming fumigation because it is short, easy to my, and means all t h i s to all men. of this type, the roasters are shut down (37). The problem is now licked. Smog may be defined brielly aa “polluted air that c a w nuiDuring the early 19OO’s, Anaconda, Mont., discovered that (uu1ce.” In tbia definition, nuisance is an all-inclusive name for decreased visibility, health detriment, odor, eye-noae-throat borses, cows, and sheep were being poisoned by arsenic found in irritation, damage to vegetation, and any other effects associated bay and range grasses. Although the copper amelter was built with high stacks and 6,000,000 cubic feet.of settling chamber and with a polluted atmosphere. Sulfur oxides and fluoridesamcommon atmospheric pollutants, flue apace, arsenic trioxide particlea were detected downwind as and yet knowledge concerning the e5wt.s of these substances on far as 35 miles. Lack of knowledge about particle size and disvegetation and animals is far from complete. Much researcb tribution at the time the plant was designed was later considered continues in the Went. Much more will have to be done before to be the cause of the problem. Inatallation of electrostatic experts will ~ g r e emore often than disagree on evaluating the precipitators solved the problem in 1910 ($7). effecta of these substances (9.5). Weather as a factor in controlling industrial effluents was Knowledge about sulfur dioxide and fluorides is useful as far demonstrated many years ago a t the Murray smelter near Salt as it goes, but bow about the thousands of other fumes and gases Lake City, Utah. Studies showed that vegetation d-ge that can exiat in the urban atmosphe-the aldehydes, acids, cawed by sulfur dioxide could occur only when four weather oaone, ketones, nitrogeu oxides, hydrocarbons, organic perconditions exieted simultaneously in that locality. The temperaoxides. ozonides, and many others? Do they by themselves ture had to be above 5’ C.; the relative humidity over 70%;
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December 1951
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INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
50,ooO tons of fuels and rubbish per day is believed to be the principal c a w of the smog (see illustrstions, page ‘21386). Thin burning by the public and by industry emib to the air each day over 2oMl tons of chemicals that may, directly or indirectly, cause poor visibility, eye irritation, vwetation damage,odor, and other smog de& (86). TheUniversityof California Collegeof Agriculture at Riverside mtimated that the 1949 smog injury to crops in Los Angela County was almcat a half million dollars Principal economic dame.ga ocourred on alfalfa, spinach, parsley, celery, romaine Wnce, endive, and radish (W) Of the total combustion products and evaporation products put into the air daily, about 40% comea from industrial ~oumen and 60% comes from activities of the general public, such as driving automobiles and trucks, burning garden traah, and he& kq buildings. Of the siep;sUrnt chemicals discharged, the activities of the gmmd public are responsible for about 75% of the organic materials,65%of thealdehyden,&5%of theammonis,40%ofthe nitrogen oxides, 30% of the acids, and 25% of the sulfur oxides. Indwtry is responsible for the remainder in each case. Gaaes derivtd from burning organic matter 818 the principal substances found in smog and are invariably associated with eye imtation. Reduced visibility, on the other hand, is caused by solid partides and liquid droplets (86). h r d i n g to a hypothesis developed at C a l i f o m Institute of Technology (lo), smog is csueed by organic pemxiden and related compounds formed in the atmosphere from the hydrocarbonsr e l d by wrioun domeatic and industrial operations. Much remaine to be l m e d about bow and why smog is fonned and what can be done about it. In the meantime, re#ear& continuw and several general t y p e of recovery equip m& are being developed to cope with &one in the Los AngelM area. It is estimated that industry bas spent about )2o,ooO,ooOin an efiort to clean the air over Los Anpeles. The petroleum industry abne has spent S12,ooO,ooO on correctipe equipment and over Sl,ooO,ooO on research (SS). Columbia Steal Co. has mently installed four eledroatatic pr&pit~.tmrs on their Torrance, Calif., open hearth f u m e s at a cost of W0,ooO. An estimated 0~3% of the pollutants an, m o v e d . The gra) imn foundrien in the Lca Angeles area have spemt nearly SZZS,ooO in studying practical means for removing the dust emitted from the cupolas. The only full scale unit given an operating permit by the L. A. County Air Pollution Control The equip District is that b a t for the Ganeral Metals &rp. m a t wmpriaea an atmospperic radiator and a water apray chamber to cool the cupola stack gam to 450’ F.,followed by a bag house conkhing woven bags (1SZ A combination emubher-electmstatic preaipitator has licked the smelter fnme problem a t the V m o n plant of the Aluminum Co. of America (8). As won as a low cost collection and disposal syatem can be worked out, there is evidence that Lo8 Angeles’ss0,aOo backyard incinraators can be eliminated. t3pmmredhytheL.A. Chamberof &mmeme,certainindustry gmupn are banding together to study their common air pollution problems. One result is that aometbg is being done about the old wood burning dc-type incinerators. The Los Angelw Fomiture M a n n f a c t m ’ Aasochtion haa developed a standard operating procedure for using these incinerators 80 as to minimk smoke. The sulfur dioxide load in the Ins Angelen atmosphere has hcut down substantially as a result of m m h by the major oil a o m p s n i ~ . W&e rshoery gam are cleaned up to yield sulfur and subnequently nulfutic acid. One such chemical unit m v e m over 80 tone of d u r daily. In connation with thin pnmw, ammonis as an impurity prevented oollection of hydrogen d M a Pmapaaing the mixLure with acid sludge formed
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ammonium sulfate and released bydrogen sulfide for sulfur recovery. The ammonium sulfate can be uaed as f d e r . During the smog control _ ~ m -I . . there have been a number of caws w h e r e v a l u a b l e materials have been m o v e d and processes improved (17). No wmpany should expect that recovery of pollutants mll produce a p r o f i h r even pay for itself. A survey of over 3M) separate pollution control installations throughout the country showed that lean than 25% 818 producing or will pmduce a net financial gain or even recoup the original investment (9). The large expenditure by the Lo8 Angelea petroleum industry for recovery equipment 14u) not made to reap a pmfit but largely to cultivata the p d will of the community. Automobiles, trucks, and buses burn an average of 10,sOO tons of gasoline every day in the Los Angeles area (Jb). This unlimited B O U I C ~of organic poUutaots has only recently been given serious attention 88 a major c a w of smog. Early this year the city of Beverly Hills began h i n g citations to owners of automobiles with smoking exhausts (68). Possible county-wide checkups on CIUB emitting illegal quantities of smoke and fumes could take place under podsting lam. Sention 673.5 of the Stete Vehicle Code Bpeaifies that no motor vehicle shall be operat4 in a maruw d t i n g in the escape of excessive smoke, gas, oil or fuel reaidue. The Control Distriot inspeOtors are also deputy &.riffs, and aa such they an, empowered t o arrest violators of the Vehicle Code. Such a violation is a misdemeanor with a maximum penalty of &%XI h e or 6 m o n t h in jail, or both Adion taken against Diesel trucks bas been for violations of Bection 24242 of the Health and Safety Code, part of the h i e Air Pollution Control Act (68). On April 9,1861,the Iae Angeles City Council mnanimoualy adopted a resolution asking the p m p city departmenta to inv+te and report on the feasibility of mandatory W a t i o n of mechanical smog armstmaon trucksand automobiles (€3). A local trsnsportation company, Pacilic Electric Railway Co., is installing Fageol degaaers on gssoline-burning buses to eliminate a claimed 76% of the exhaust fumes. Instsllation of 318 of these devices by the end of ‘thin year will oost about *sop00 (W). No mch action i s planned for the Diesel bum. Devicaa to oxidize organic compounds in auto exhaunt an, being studied
Kesuurces RR WEST
(IS). Detroit automotive engineera were reportad to have Men a dim view of the “smog arrestar” approach to the problem (91). The conmmmn WBB that “postwar cara have high +fuel ratios which cut the release of carbon monoxide from the exbanst to as little as 1%. Thia compares with 6 to 7% in prewar e m . Udssa a n o d d e d gasoline is used, t h e r ~are no seperste mechanical devioes M far deigned to reduce odor and fumes from w exhaust.% Where nonleaded gasoline is used, a catalyst can be installed t o redm fumes and carbon monoxide. Such a mtalyst cos*,about sa00 and must be ravitalid every 2ooo to 4ooo horn of operation. The greateat possibility for elimination of fumw will come fmm continued engine diuementa, r a w thanfmmsmogarreatew.”
LMWLATIVE CONTROL There is probably no &on that cannot be c h a m to countrpfrash air, given a vast amount of money for the Bpecialkedequipment. Thia applii @ly to the automobile exhaust, the smoking factory stack, and the garbage incinerator. However, t h e t i m e h a a n o t p e t a ~ w ~ t h e u ~ ~ ~ ~ o r a b
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to pay for the country-fresh air, This extra cost would take the form of increased prices for goods or personal expenditures for the auto defumer and furnace smoke eliminnt or, or increased taxes for public-supported research and pollution control. From a practical standpoint, it is not necessary to change all emissions into pure air. A compromise is reached when t,he atmosphere surrounding a person does not cause nuisance, as indicated by odor, visibility, health effects, etc. There is little doubt that, t,his type of clean air can be provided in all hniericari cities. What is required is the coopcmtion of industry, the citizens, and the local government. An air pollution control group should be working within tlie frarnen.ork of sound local legklation. In spite of the control activity in recent years, the cost to the average taxpayer has been small. 4 survey of t,he 30 largest American cities showed that the annual public expenditure for air pollution control averaged 8 cents per person. Most of the cities fell within the 7 to 12 cent per person per year range (9). An imperceptible fraction of this money was spent for the scientific research necessary to help formu1:Lte intelligent l a w conceriiing a highly complex t,echnical problem. At the hlay 1950 U. S.Technical Conference on Air Pollution held in Washington, D. C., Richard F. Flansen, counsel for Allied Chemical and Dye Corp., concluded as follows: “The solution to the problem of polluted air depends not on more legislation nor more stringent enforcement but on more research. Pending completion of essential research, n-e should continue to reduce the quantities of foreign matter released to the air. Rut only when we have ascertained the relationship to health of various pollutants, alone and in combination, and found economical ways and means of reducing them, will we know how far we must and can go in clarifying tlie air. Until science has provided the answers to these questions, statutory regulations are bound t o be abortive.” There is no law that is adequate to apply in all localities. Local conditions of climate, topography, industry, and living habits all combine to make the air pollution over each city an individual problem. Some pollutions are best attacked on a regional basis, due to one or more of the aforementioned factors. Airborne pollutants are no respecters of real estate boundaries. As the San Francisco Bay Area continues to grow, smog will get worse. The only solution to that particular problem is a control based on the cooperation of the nine counties comprising the Bay Area. So far, evidence of this legislat,ive cooperation has been lacking. Part of this reluctance is due to the great number of Bay Area residents who don’t believe tlie t smog vr-ill ever be a serious problem due to the cleansing action of the Golden Gate winds. The scientific as well as nasal evidence is all against this feeling. Human nature being what i t is, nohody does, anything about air pollution unless forced to. This cleansing pressure is obtained by laws. Often these l a w are vague and difficult to enforce, Sometimes they are highly specific-so much so that even a layman knows what they mean. Some laws apprar to be unintelligent with respect to the 1imit:btions of present technology plus economics. Down to Specifics. All states in the Far Kest have general l a w preventing nuisance and providing for local administration of control. A few states prescribe limits on emissions of pollutants. In addition, a number of cities and counties have adopted ordinances to abate air pollution. These ordinances generally prohibit smoke emissions exceeding a density measured by the Ringelniann chart, and to some degree, forbid soot and fly ash in excess of certain concentrations. In the case of other pollutants, t’he ordinances and regulations are often just as vague as the statutes, and usually classifj7 as “nuisances,” or otherwise authorize their enforcement agencies t o abate emissions of noxious or offensive gases, vapors, mists, odors or dusts which annoy, injure, or endanger the health, safety, or comfort of the public ( 11).
Vol. 43, No. 12
It is common practice for ordinances to provide for annual inspection of fuel-burning equipment except in small residences and to require building owners to submit plans for and obtain permits covering the installation, operation, and alteration of fuel-burning equipment. Some ordinances regulate the sale of certain fuels and fuel-burning equipment. Dealers of these may also be licensed and subject to periodic inspection. The control officer may prevent use of illegal equipment or fuel. California uses four legislative devices for air pollution control : (a)The Penal Code defines a public nuisance as anything which is injurious to health, offensive to the senses, or an interference with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property by an entire community or considerable number of persons. ( b ) The Health and Safety Code authorizes the state department of public health to abate public nuisances, although in the case of air pollution nuisances this poFver is: not normally exercised directly, as the a,ctual abatement of nuisances is left up to the local government units. The department has, however, created an Air Pollution Control Committee to assist local health authorities in handling complaints of public nuisances caused by air contamination. (c) The Government Code authorizes cities and counties to abate public nuisances. This poiver is used by the local health authority in cities and by the district att’orneyin counties, unless other arrangements for air pollution administration have been made. ( d ) In 1947, air pollution control districts mere created in all counties of the st’ate, each to be activated onl. on a resolut,ion of necessity by the board of supervisors ( 6 ) . B 1949 amendment to this law authorizes any two or more contiguous counties, by action of the boards of supervisors, to merge their districts into a unified air pollution control district. The district law prohibits the excessive discharge of dense smoke or other contaminants so as to cause injury or create a nuisance. The county boards of supervisors are designated as air pollution control district boards, and may, in that capacity, set rules for the reduction of air contaminants and issue permits for the use of pollutant-emitting equipment. Exempt from these rules are mobile equipment, certain agricultural equipment, small dwellings and their related incinerators, and barbecue equipment (34). A number of air pollution bills were presented to the 1951 California legislature. Although they were defeated, two of the hills might be briefly mentioned to indicate some of the legislative thinking. Bssembly Bill 2713 would provide for regulation of air pollution by the state and regional water pollution control boards, in those areas not under the jurisdiction of an activated air pollution control dist’rict. The regional water pollution control boards would be authorized to obtain coordinated action in the prevention and abatement of air pollution through formal or informal meetings with the persons involved. The boards would be able to encourage self-policing by industry, require any state or local agency to investigate and report on technical factors involved in air pollution, and request the enforcement of laws affecting a,ir pollution by federal, state, and local agencies. They could also formulate long-range control plans for each region. The regional boards would be further empowered, on discovering a condition of air pollution which has not been abated by the state department of public health or a local health officer, to prescribe requirements relative to the discharge of such aerial waste and to notify the person discharging such waste of this action. If the discharge were continued in violation of such requirements, it could then be abated by the regional board in accordance with outlined procedure. Assembly Bill 16 would initiat,e a coordinated program of research into all phases of a.ir pollution as it may affect public health. An appropriation of $150,000 would be made to the state department of public health for the establishment of an air pollution research project. An air pollution advisory council would be created in the department of public health, consisting of the state directors of health, agriculture, and industrial rela-
December 1951
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INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
tions, the &dents of four leading universities (or their designated representatives), and the presidents of the California Conference of Local IIealth officers, the State Medical Association, the Loa W e s County Medical Society, the State Chamber of Conmere, and the California Manufacturers’ Association. The council would advise and Sseist the air pollution research project, and would aid any other group engaged in air pollution research. The state department of public health would make regular progress reports to the legislature with reeommendationa for and further action considered desirable. Loa Angeles medical authorities felt that 5150,ooO would be only a drop in the bucket compared with what is needed. It was estimated that the medical research would require a million dollars for a laboratory and pmhably a half million dollars a year for 10 years before results of scientific value might be obtained. This was considered too much to raise by local taxation. Such magnitude of research ia considered by m y persons to he a atate mponsihility. On that level, the cost could be defrayed ‘-y funda from a broader tax b w . RBgsrdless of how the money is raised, eventually the health Eects of smog must be determined. A law p a d by the Oregon Legislature in 1951 and supported y both farm and industrial organizations authorizes the state eanitary authority to develop a comprehensive program for the prevention and control of air pollution, to encourage and conduct atudies, investigations, and research relating to air pollution, to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution control, and to promulgate and enforce rules and regulations implementing the powers of the sanitary authority. A s u m of S90,OOO has been ,approved for these purposes during 195162. The authority will also be empowered to abate public nuisances created by air pollution. The Utah Btate Department of Publicity and Industrial Development in mpomible for initiating and supporting efiorts to eliminate smoke in a m where it is detrimental to the health and happiness of the people. Air pollution has not attained problem status in the other western states so no specific legislation in this field has been enacted.
CITIES OF THE WEST
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Perhaps the moat publicized air pollution problem of recent years is the smog of Los Angeles. To lick the problem, highly qecific legislation has been adopted, a county control gmup has been set up to operate under a state enabling act. This county control district does some scientific research and contracts for specific phaees with local universities. Industry is spending huge 8 u m ~to meet the ordinance requirements and also to 6nd out the nature and cause of smog. A history of the air pollution legislation in Los Angeles is worthy of special note. It may well be a pattern to be followed by other cities of the West-and perhaps t h w in all parts of the nation. In 1904, the Mayor and City Council of Los Angeles got together to adopt an ordinance entitled, “An Ordinance Prohibiting the Use of Pethleum or Any Product Thereof for Fuel, in Such a Manner as to Allow or C a w the Escape of Soot or Smoke.” Thus hkgan a long line of ordinances designed to keep the air pure and clean. To the nonlawyem of the population, the ordinances seemed to include provisions against all types of discharges, exhalations, emissiona, and bad breath. In spite of it all, the air over Los Angeles became steadily worse. Periodic attacks of abnormally bad air pollution caused weeping eyes and irritated tempera. Frequent use of the term “smog” helped to make the‘ newspaper headlines mom tersely dramatic. All types of ills were aacribd to the new menace. Sinns infection, heart disease, cancer of the lung, asthma,the high divorce rate, smaller aise of .the oranges, increased crime, capitalist plot, the Devil’s handiwork. Loa Angeles newapapera launched a crusade against +e villain, Smog. Politicians made speeches in which they
2691
viewed with alarm the insidious creeping menace that threatened the lifeand health of every,constituent. On one fact there was unanimous opinion-ir pollution or smog was getting worse. The periods of d e creased visibility, irritated eyes, and damaged crops wem becoming more frequent. Something had to he done. finally, in 1947, the California State Legislature passed Aaeembly Bill No. 1 as an amendment to ‘the Health and Safety Code. This was the first statute of its kind passed by any state legislature. Under the new law, the Lo8 Angeles County Board of Supervisors set up an Air Pollution Control District. Specific regulations regarding emiasions are a8 follows:
Re-oHrgs
1. A person shall not discharge into the atmosphere from any singlesourceof emissionanyaircontamiaantsfor riodaa egat ing more than 3 minutes in any one hour, whicrare as%k or darker in shade than that desi nated as No. 2 on the Ringelmann chart, published by the U. S. ureau of Mines or of such opacity as to obscure an observer’s view t o a degree equal or greater than does smoke of an intensity which is as dark or darker on the No. 2 Ringelmann chart. 2. A person shall not discharge into the atmosphere from any single source, particulate matter or solids in excess of 0.4 grain per:cubic foot of discharge nor in excess of 40 pounds per hour of solids, regardless of the t o t 4 volume of discharge from the s o w e . 3. A person shall not discharge jnto the atmosphere sulfur compounds calculated as sulfur diovlde by more than 0.2yo by volume of the stack gases. 4. A person shall not discharge from an source whatsoever such auantities of air contaminants or otiekr materials which raused’iojury, detriment, nuisanre, or annoyanrr to any eonsiderable number of r r n o n s or to the public, or which endanger the comfort. ~ e . ealth. or aafetv of anv~ auoh oersons the . . r e m~ ~ ~ ~ or .~ ~ public, a i which-iiiuse~orb e a nitural tendency to cause inlury or damage to business or property.
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The air pollution law is enforced through a system of permits. Every person who dimbarges air contaminants must have a permit. Before equipment can be operated, a permit must be pbtained from the district. (Equipment in operation before February 1, 1948, is automatically permitted.) Excluded from theee requirements are equipment which costs less than )300 and combustiou equipment having a combustion volume less than 15 cubic feet. This latter exclusion permits the 880,M)O backyard incinerators in the Loa Angeles m a to spew their smoke merrily without surcease (80). Furthennore, mobile equipment is exempt from regulation. When requesting authorization to build a facility and a permit to operate it, the plans and m i f i c a tions must reveal clearly the proposed means for control of pollutant emissions, and the extent of such control anticipated in the design must be S ~ O W D . The applicant must pay the district $4.00 an hour for the time required for consultations and checking plans and speciiications. Ifa person wishes to appeal the ruling of an air pollution control officer,he may state his caee before a hearing board composed of an engineer and two lawyers. This hoard may grant a variance or other relief from the general limits of the law. A variance may he granted for the period needed to study possible means for abating emissions or for the time needed to build corrective equip ment. If no sstiafaction is obtained from the hearing board, the matter may .be brought before the S(lperior Court. ‘This conetitutes an independent determination of the reasonableness and legality of the law, facts, and opinions in the caw. The Los Angeles regulations are important in that they represent the 6rst attempt to legislate specific limits on contsminants other than smoke, soot, and fly ash. The regulations set quanti-
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 43, No. 12
Table I. S t a t u s of Air Pollution Control in Western Cities City Berkeley, Calif. (I 6) Los Angeles, Calif. (16)
Long Beach, Calif. (20)
Oakland, Calif. ( 7 )
Phoenix, Arie. ( 1 4 ) Portland, Ore. ( 2 )
Sacramento, Calif. (96) Salt Lake City, Utah ( 4 )
San Diego, Calif. (10) Sen Francisco, Calif. ( 8 ) Seattle, Wash. (98)
Existing Air Pollution Regulations None locally: general nuisance regulations of state Under 1947 Air Pollution Control Act of California, the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District was set u p : a permit system has been instituted: Ringelmann chart and smoke density determinations control visible emissions; local regulations control other emissions. -4 1949 amendment authorizes any t v o or more contiguous counties t o merge their districts into a unified poilution control district R e d a t i o n s administered bv Los Angeles County A; Pollution Control District (see Los Angeles) Local ordinances controlling emissions, smelting ores, offensive places, and occupations, public nuisance None except smoke abatement ordinance considered a s a nuisance complaint Ordinances (KO. 89899, 92058) regulate emissions: also create Air Pollution Committee to advise con-
thority; also authorizes pollution studies, prevention, control i i o local regulations except ordinances controlling burning of garbage and rubbish Local, ordinance regulating emissions
No specific regulations: general nuisance and/or public health regulations Local ordinance (KO. 6373, January 1926) regulating emissions No local regulations
Spokane, Wash. (20)
No local regulations: preliminary surveys t o determine problem are being conducted
Tacoma, Wash. (92)
Local ordinances (KO.13794, 14091) establish Division of Air Pollution Control: regulate einissions and establish permit system
Planned Legislation S o n e locally Continuous studv bv the
Municipal Group Responsible for Air Pollution Control Health department Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
Relation between Local Abatement Groups and State Groups Close cooperation between city and state health departments None
feated b y 1951 legislature (details in text)
None
Sone
City Health and Fire Prevention Bureau but primarily the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District Board of Health. Fire Prevention Bureau shares responsibility for control of cinders and fly ash Board of Health
Air Pollution Committee is formulating a code
Bureau of Buildings (Department of Finance)
Close relations bctwecn Sanitary Division of city Bureau of Health and the Department of Industrial Hygiene of State Board of Health
None locally
Xone. Chamber of Commerce has active air pollution section P o y e r and Heating Division with direct connection to the Department of Streets a n d Public Iinprovements Specific problem referred t o city department involved
None
S o n e planned by city (see Los Angeles)
D a t a being collected t o determine need for local legislation
None
Kone locally
None
None
None, except cooperation TTith state division of Industrial Hygiene City departments m o ~ k with counterparts in state None
None locally
Department of Public Health
University of Washington (School of Public Health) is studying local pollution t o determine need for legislation
City Engineering Department and Department of Public Health are cooperating with University of Washington air pollution study None responsible, however, Health Department is seeking action on matter
Undefined relationship between local groups and state Pollution Control Commission
Division of Air Pollution Control of the Department of Public Welfare, close association with the Health Department
No state air pollution abatement group
House Bill No. 456 (Februa r y 1951) t o give air pollution control t o state pollution control coinmission died in committee. Bill did not include specific requirements governing pollution See Spokane
tative restrictions on dust and fumes. Since the control of dust and fumes is a relatively new field and experiments must be done t o find the proper means of control, large expenditures are necessary for most industries in order to meet the regulations (18). So much for Los Angeles. The present status of air pollution control in western cities over 100,000 population was determined by a recent letter survey. The results are shown in Table I. PLANNING An ounce of preventive research is worth a pound of curative legislation. This thought should be appreciated by those firms
No state air pollution abatement group
that have become embroiled in law suits over air pollution damage claims. The design and location of an industrial plant should exploit the favorable features of an area and compensate for the unfavorable. It is wiser and cheaper to plan for effective control of effluents than to attempt remedial action later. Plans for expanding an industrial plant or locating a new one should consider the air pollution potential. Existing regulations should be carefully studied. The recovery units should be designed to give exhaust exceeding the regulations in purity. Intelligent extrapolation into the future should yield advance in-
h m l n r 1951
. A
1
’
INDUSTRIAL AND
ENGINEER IN^ C H E M I S T R Y
mation on what future regulations may emb-e. An alert management should do all it can t o anticipate future ordinances and meet &em before they beoome onemus burdens.
si -24.340.
(6)
C h .E w . N e w . 2 9 . W (1961).
C I ) G o h a . R.
B.. industrial hv-
Kegources -~ iAR WES
emLuoIIB can ’’
by a taU.stackor hotter exhaust. In extreme cases, the anawer
-me
necessary
conhd. It is only in recent years that industry has considered the -therm hnportnnt wnaidmtion in plant looation. This new factor wio grow in importamp directly pmportionally t o the inevitablehcmaing seventy of air pollution control ordinances. When an induntrial plant is on the designer‘s drawing board, pmvieion should be made for installing a d l weather atstion to record wntinuously the wind epead and direction, temperature, humidity, and other data that might help determine what happen8 to stack effluente after they leave the wmpany property. Pmhmmwy ,meteorological study is useful in seleding the best daigrmand locstions for stacks and other emidon points. Prior to plant construction, d y w of the local soil, vegetation,and farm animals will aid in e a t a b l i a pollution datum plane. This might be important in mbsepuant litigation which claims dsmsgedue t o industrial operations. Mnch more could be added t o sbow the importance of foresblling sir pollution problems. The deeirability of doing thia in df-evident. One t h b g is certain-much more of this type of indastrial and city planning will be necesasly in this country. It will oost industry and the general public money-big moneyto blve the air pollntion problem in our urban areas. It will be worth every cant. Ressamh is the tool; i n t e U i i t leadership the catalyst; pubtie good will the aspirStion; continued pmperity in a friendly political climate is the ultimate goal of us all.
..
f
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1961). (8)Qonley. A. B.. chief f w d and asnitary inspector. City and Oounty of 8sn Francisco. Calif., private communication (June 1. 19611. (9) Gibson. W. B.. in “Fboeedingl, First Nstionsl Air Pollution Symp4wn,” pp. 109-114. Loa Angeleell. Stsnford Resesrch In’ stitute. 1949. (10) HasgenSmit, A. J.. Bw. and Seiancs, 14, NO:~.7 (1 (11) Hansen. Riahsrd F., in “Transsctiona of Legal Oonfemas. Induwial Hygiene Foundstion of dmerios, Inc.,“ BUU. No. 12. p. a0 (Nov.,lB. 1949). T. L.. JI.: caw.MW.~ ~ a c i f .(I, c , NO.a. 24 (1961). (la) cia) H O U ~ ~ SE. . 3 .. pnvats OommUniDatian (J=. ao, 1961). (14) Jonea, R., City Health DWwtmmt. Phcsnix. Ari.,, priyate communication (1961). (16) Kelly, F. L.. direotor of pUblio.€hlth, City of Berkeley, W., private communication (July 26,1961). . , (18) EennsdY;E. W.. PI- m t e d at U.,S. Teehied Cqftzettca on Air P,uutiOn. Wssbin&an, D. C. @ass 1960); (17) Larson. G.. WesfanInduatry, 16. No. 7,27 (1961). (18) Lsrson, 0. P.. prem releaae, Los Angelen County Air Pollution Control Distriat (August 1,1960). (19) Leonard, A. R.. aeniatant director of P u F c Health,County d 8sn Dingo. Cslif.. private wmmunieation (July23.1961). (20) Litasck. L D.. beaith 05oer. City of Law EM&, Calif.. private c o d c a t i o n (June 8.1961). (21) Loa AwekdMirrm, Lo8 Angeles, Cslif;(April12, 1951). (22) L a Awekd T i m . Los Anselee, Calif. (Nov. 22, 1950). (23) M., (April 10, 1961). (24) Middleton, J. T..Kendriok..J. B., Jr., and hhmrlm, H. W.. C W .I g r i w h r e , 4, No. l l , ? (19W). (26) Nord. M . . C h . Ew.,58.112 (1961). (26) PaaadeM StM Nnos, P s d e n a . Calif. (April 9,1961). (27)Portkzndolmmim. Portland, Ore. (Deo. 12,1950). (as) h o l m , A. A., director of envimnmsntsl ssnitation, City of Sacramento.Calif.. Private communication (nut.20,1961). (ZS) Rm,pn, C. K.. s u e s i n g sanitarian, City of S w h e . Wash.. pnvate commmcatmn (June 4.1961). (30) Reed, H.. “Damagomew Won’t Cure Smog.“ premnted to Manufaohwing Chermsts’ h o i s t i o n PolIution Conf-cn, New York, N. Y. (April 18,1961). (81) Fabinson, E., Bog A m B-8, pp. ZC-24 (Winter 1961). (32) Ramne, J.. engineer in o b , prision of Air Pollution Conl=oI, City of. Tacoma, Wash., pevate ~ m m u n i ~ t i o(June n 8, 1961). (33) Son Prarci.eo C h m i c b , 8sn Fmanoieao. w.(Jub ai, 1851). (a) Scott, 8.. and MoCarty. J. F.. “Air Pollution Control,” pp. 16-23, Berkeley. Cslif., University of California. Msy 1051. (36) Stanford Re-h Institute. “Third Interim Report on the smog Pmkhn in Los Anseles County.” Im Awdas, w..tem
Oil and Cnra Aasocistion (1950). (38) Slocklrm R d , Stoahon. Cslif. (June 6,1961). . . (1949). (37) h a i n . R. E., Im. Em. C ~ M 41,2384 1.m) Van __, .- Ambur& J. E.. eatinn direotor. Division of M t e l i o n . h t t l e , wash.,privSts e ~ & - ~ t i O n (J- 7. i s s i ) . (39) Vivian, R. E., Los Aw& T i m , Loa Angelea. Calif. (Oat. 19. 1961). (40) Washington %ate Institute of Teahnology. Division of Industzid Raaearch. “Air Pollution-SW,’Esuipment, and Accompliabmenta,” The State College of Washington.Pullman (Nd). ~~
(1) Am. (tot A m . dbaU3y. 8 . 1 s (1928). (2) Bain, T. E., ohid. Division of Food and Ehnitation. City of Portland. Ore., private co-unication (July 25,1851). (8) Blenett. 8.E.,W m h (7%. 25, No. 4,29 (1949). (4) Butler. W. L., ohief engineer, Power and Heating Division, 8slt LsLe City Cow., private communication (July 21. 1961).
R ~ ~ - D Bsptsmber la. 1961.
END OF SYMPOSIUM Reprints of this symposium m a y be purchased for 50 cents each from the Reprint Department, American Chemical Society, 1153 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington 6, D. C.
