BDBA, 196 cone calorimetry data, summary, 196 t gas-phase

Subject Index

Downloaded by BROWN UNIV on December 19, 2012 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): December 18, 2012 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2012-1118.ix002

A ABS. See acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) Acid-base titrations, 226 Acrylic polymers, 43 acrylonitrile (AN), 43 methyl methacrylate (MMA), 43 polyacrylonitrile (PAN), 43 poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), 43 structures of comonomers, 43f Acrylonitrile (AN), 43 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), 151 Additive anti-oxidant, UV stabilizer, flame retardant, 3 metal-based compounds, 83 retard spread of flame, 3 ADP. See ammonium phosphate dibasic (ADP) AIBN. See 2,2′-Azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN) Alkyl side-groups elimination from phosphonate unit, 46f Aluminium trihydroxide (ATH), 142, 252 Aluminum hypophosphite (AP), 167 weak Lewis acid-base, 170 AMLR. See average mass loss rate (AMLR) Ammonium phosphate dibasic (ADP), 153 Ammonium polyphosphate (APP), 52, 151, 223, 335 AN. See acrylonitrile (AN) Anti-dripping agents, 23 AP. See aluminum hypophosphite (AP) APP. See ammonium polyphosphate (APP) APP-based coatings, multistep adsorption, 335 Aromatic back bond carbons, 127 Arrhenius pre-exponential factor, 380 Aryl phosphates, 120 flame retardancy mechanisms, 16 ASEA. See average specific extinction area (ASEA) ASTM E1354 cone calorimeter test, 492 ASTM E84 test, 483 ATH. See aluminium trihydroxide (ATH) ATH and another mineral filler FR, production methods, 99 Av-EHC. See average effective heat of combustion (Av-EHC)

Average effective heat of combustion (Av-EHC), 173 Average heat release rate (Avg.HRR), 196 Average mass loss rate (AMLR), 86 Average mass loss rate (Avg.MLR), 196 Average specific extinction area (ASEA), 86 Avg.HRR. See average heat release rate (Avg.HRR) Avg.MLR. See average mass loss rate (Avg.MLR) α-zirconium phosphate-based LbL coatings, multistep adsorption, 333 2,2′-Azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN), 236

B Battenfeld injection molding machine, 153 BBA. See tetrabromobisphenol A (BBA) BDBA. See tetrabromodiglycidylether of bisphenol A (BDBA) BDP. See bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) flame retardancy mechanisms, 33 gas-phase activity, 33 Bifunctional phenolic hardeners, 298 Bilayered (BL), 331 Bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP), 15, 114 halogen-free flame retardants, 16 investigated materials, composition in wt.%, 17t Bisphenol A bis-diphenyl phosphate (BPADP), 153 Bisphenol A polycarbonate/ acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene (PC/ABS), 15 engineering polymer blend, 16 BKZ vertical burning test, 261, 264 BL. See bilayered (BL) BL + BL deposited architecture, 338 Block copolymer synthesis general reaction, 274s Block copolymers char formation and char decomposition processes, 289 oxygen index measurements, 289 Block copolymers and reference materials, oxygen index (OI) values, 284t

545 In Fire and Polymers VI: New Advances in Flame Retardant Chemistry and Science; Morgan, A., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2012.


Block copolymers structure, phosphate ester moiety, 289 Block copolymers synthesis examples, 279t general reaction, 274s Block copolymers synthesized based on OI results, 290t Boltzmann radiation constant (σ), 386 BPADP. See bisphenol A bis-diphenyl phosphate (BPADP) Brominated epoxies, analysis of combustibility, 193 average molar rate of decomposition, 202 Avg.HRR and molar THR trends, discrepancies, 202 bromine as gas-phase combustion suppressant, CC dependencies, 198 calculated heats of complete combustion, 198t conclusions, 202 cone calorimetry, flammability test, 198 cone calorimetry THR, reductions, 200f experimental, 194 analysis, 197 BBA, efficient flame-retardant than BDBA, 196 cone calorimetry data, summary, 196t gas-phase combustion processes, 197 oxygen consumption technique, 195 results, 195 gas-phase combustion efficiencies, 199f heats of combustion, 193 introduction, 194 pyrolysis-flaming-combustion calorimeter, 193 pyrolysis-flaming-combustion calorimetry apparatus, 195f relative Avg.HRR and relative molar THR, comparison, 201f Brominated fire-suppressing agents, 194 Bunsen burner test, 3

C Cage-shaped solid phosphate, tris(1-oxo-2,6,7-trioxa-1phosphobicyclo[2,2,2]octane methylene-4) (trimer), 115s flexural modulus, 116 Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), 530 Carbon nanofibers (CNF), 344 Carbonaceous char, 25

CB[6]. See Cucurbit[6]uril (CB[6]) CB[6]/20A–MMT, preparation, 71 CB[n] family, ability to bind amines, 70 CC. See cone calorimetry (CC) Cellulose and wood flour cellulose-based flame retardant systems, 156 effect of feed location, 156 flexural modulus, 158f flexural strength, 158f TG and DTG curves, 159f glass transition temperature, 159 ABS blends, glass transition data, 160t plasticization flow improvements, 161t mechanical properties, 157 morphology, 160 thermogravimetric analysis, 157 wood-based flame retardant systems, 155 Cellulose phosphate, thermal stabilities, 227 CEP. See charring efficiency of phosphorus (CEP) CEPA. See Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), 391 Chain growth polymers, reactive modification, 38 Char promoter, phosphorous, 40 Charring efficiency of phosphorus (CEP), 373 Chemical substances plan (CSP), 529 Chi. See chitosan (Chi) Chitosan (Chi), 335 Chloro-phosphate esters, 251 Classic IFR systems, 52 CloNa. See sodium montmorillonite (CloNa) CNF. See carbon nanofibers (CNF) CNF additives, 350 Combined usage of phosphonates and ZS, 143 Combined useage of organo-ferrocene and Fyrol RDP, 144 Complex of CB[6]/20A, preparation, 71 Cone calorimetry (CC), 194 Cone test of PMP and PMPN, 65f Conventional halogen-free flame retardants and nanocomposites technology, synergy, 119 phosphorus-containing compounds, 114 siloxanes, 117 sulfur-containing compounds, 118 COP. See CO production (COP)



Copolyester (PES), 183 Copolymer of MMA, condensed phase mechanism, 46f CO production (COP), 176 Core-shell structure latex, 117 Cost-effective flame retardants, 328 CSP. See chemical substances plan (CSP) CTAB. See cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) Cucurbit[6]uril (CB[6]), 69 compression-molded surfaces, X-ray diffraction patterns, 74 conclusion, 81 cone calorimetry, 78 cone calorimetry results, 75 experimental, instrumentation, 71 experimental materials, 70 fire retardant material, 69 introduction, 69 melt blended PMMA and PS, heat release rate curves, 76f PMMA and PS, cone calorimetry, 75t PMMA and PS series char morphology, 77f TGA plots, 74f polyurea composites with CB[6], 76 preparation, 71 PS- and PMMA composites with CB[6], 73 1H NMR spectra, comparison, 73f robust cage structure, 72 robust macrocyclic host molecule, 69 structure, 72f thermal properties of FR filled PU, 79t thermal properties of polyurea, 78t thermal stability, 74, 76 Cu Kα radiation, 409 Curable silicone-based coatings, fire performance, 205 changes of ρ.cp, 216 convective/radiative heating test, 207 cross-linked elastomers, 211 D [SiO2(CH3)2] and T [CH3Si(O1/2)3] structures, 205 discussion and conclusion, 220 experimental D, Ti silicone structures, schematics presentation, 208f fire performance, 208 materials, 207 solid state NMR, 207 thermal properties, 209 Torch test, schematic representation, 209f fire performance, 212 heat diffusivity, 216

Hotdisk method, 207 introduction, 206 poly-addition reaction, 206f poly-condensation reaction, 206f resin characterization, 210 resin cross-linking, chemical pathway, 210f S1/GCC and S2/GCC, TG curve, 216 Si-O-Si bond, 218 spectra, deconvolution, 211 TGA-FTIR experiment, 216 thermal diffusivity α, 215 thermal properties, 213 thermal stability of S1/GCC compared to S2/GCC, 216 virgin steel plate and silicone coatings plate, 212f Cyanuric chloride, 125 Cyanuric ring, 128

D DBA. See diglycidylether of bisphenol A (DBA) Deca-BDE. See decabromodiphenyl ether (Deca-BDE) Decabromodiphenyl ether (Deca-BDE), 528 DGEBA. See diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) DGEBA based epoxy system, 306 DGEBA resins flame retardant, 301 DICY. See dicyandiamide (DICY) Dicyandiamide (DICY), 295 Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), 237 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 154, 271 Differential termogravimetric (DTG), 157 Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA), 295 Diglycidylether of bisphenol A (DBA), 194 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO), 83, 120, 236 Dimethyl 2-(methacryloyloxyethyl) phosphate (DMMEP), 363 Diphenyl decyl phosphate (DPDP), 153 DMA. See dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) DMMEP. See dimethyl 2-(methacryloyloxyethyl) phosphate (DMMEP) DMP-RDP. See tetra-2,6-dimethyl resorcinol diphosphate (DMP-RDP)



DOPO. See 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10phosphaphenanthrene 10-oxide (DOPO) DPDP. See diphenyl decyl phosphate (DPDP) DSC. See differential scanning calorimeter (DSC); differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) DTG. See differential termogravimetric (DTG) 3D TG/FTIR spectrum, 61f Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), 225, 343

E EBS. See ethylene bis-stearamide (EBS) Eco-friendly FR-ABS, 165 EDX. See electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) EEE. See electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) Effective heat of combustion (EHC), 175 Efficiency of phosphorus in vapor phase (EPV), 373 EG. See expandable graphite (EG) EHC. See effective heat of combustion (EHC) Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), 527 Electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), 271 Electron scanning microscopy (ESM), 271 Engineering biodegradable polymer blends biodegradable polymers, flame retardant, 430 common biodegradable polymers, 428 material properties and chemical structures, 429t neat ecoflex, PLA, PLA-Ecoflex blend, mechanical properties, 430t PLA/ecoflex, biodegradable blend, 429 TEM/SEM of blend of PLA/ecoflex, 430f common environmental FR formulations and flammability, 432 blends of RDP starch/ecoflex(60/40 wt%) self-extinguishing, 433 contact angle measurement, 434t HNT and Cloiste 20A particles, 437 MLR of starch/ecoflex with different nanoparticles, 439f NEXAFS spectra of starch, ecoflex, and RDP and STXM images, 433f

PLA/ecoflex blends, SEM images, 435f PLA/ecoflex/starch and PLA/ecoflex/RDP starch, STXM images, 436f PLA/RDP and PBAT/RDP clays, 435 RDP-coated HNTs and EDAX of squire box, 434f RHR of starch/ecoflex with RDP starch, 440f SEM images of residues, 438f starch/ecoflex blends, elastic modulus and hardness, 441t conclusion, 442 introduction, 428 morphology, mechanical property, and flame retardancy, 427 resorcinol bis (diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), properties of thermal stability, 431t impact strength and UL94-V0 flammable test, 432f Epoxy/amine systems containing ZnAc, cone data summary, 89t Epoxy-amine thermoset fire-retardant additives, 83 cobalt-aluminum dodecanoate LDH (CoAl), 86 conclusions, 94 EPON 826, 85 experimental, 85 hydrated metal salts, 90 metal salt hydrates of zinc acetate and cobalt acetate, 94 studied compositions, 86t introduction, 83 Epoxy materials, additive flame retardants, 304 Epoxy-novolac based resin, 299 DOPO, its derivatives, DPPO and Ph2PO, efficient flame retardants, 299 Epoxy resin formulations, 297f Epoxy resins, synergistic flame retardant mixtures, 295 combining gas-phase and condensed-phase active flame retardants, 305 crystalline boehmite and DOPO, synergistic combinations, 303 DDPO and its derivatives, poor flame retardant efficiencies, 299 ecologically-friendly and cost-efficient, 309 epoxy-novolac, 297 fusion process (so-called preformulation), 296



inert fillers, insoluble, 302 introduction, 296 non-reinforced epoxy samples, 298 novel melaminium or guanidinium salts, 309 organic cations and anions containing nitrogen and phosphorus, chemical structures, 305f polyepoxide-based resin system, 297 PWB epoxy materials, reactive flame retardants, 298 summary and conclusions, 308 synergistic flame-retardant systems, 304 EPV. See efficiency of phosphorus in vapor phase (EPV) ESM. See electron scanning microscopy (ESM) Ethylene bis-stearamide (EBS), 153 Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), 99 EU. See European Union (EU) European Union (EU), 392, 525 EVA. See ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) EVA copolymers mineral filler fire retardants, 97 aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3), 98 calculated FR contributions and measured LOI values, comparison, 104f conclusions, 110 effect of huntite/hydromagnesite ratio, limiting oxygen index, 104t EVA-huntite-hydromagesite mixtures, 107 experimental, materials, 102 group II or III carbonates or hydroxides, 98 heat absorbed, determined from heat capacity, 100 HRR at varying heat fluxes of diferent samples of FR EVA, 105f huntite and hydromagnesite, mixtures, 102 individual energy contributions to FR effect, 108f peak heat release rate and endothermic decomposition of filler, 109f polymer flammability reduction, non-combustible filler, 97 pyrolysis GC-MS traces, 109f summary of cone calorimeter data, 107t Expandable graphite (EG), 253

F FESEM. See field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) Fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), 481 fiber reinforced polymers, comparison ASTM E662 test only measures smoke density, 490 conclusion, 493 degrees of fire performance, 482 experimental, 482 filled halogenated resin systems, flame spread tests, 484t flame spread tests, 486t resins used in test program, 483t smoke tests, 488t perform in fire performance tests, 481 Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), 154 FIGRA. See fire growth rate (FIGRA) Fire behavior, 8 Fire death rates per million population, comparison, 3f Fire growth rate (FIGRA), 375 Fire performance index (FPI), 330 Fire propagation index (FPI), 56 Fire risk and fire safety, 8 Flame retardancy synergistic use of talc, 15 conclusion, 33 introduction, 16 investigating materials with different talc content, 33 Flame retardancy chemistry, the golden age (1950-80 period), 328 Flame retardant chemicals, 3 undergone extensive risk assessment, 5 Flame retardant chemistry conclusion, 12 fire death rate, 2 high rate, factors, 3 flame retardant value example, 2 introduction, 1 polymers, enabling technology, 7 toxic fire emissions prime toxic product, carbon monoxide (CO), 5 Flame retardant polyurethane foams, 140 advance PCFC as tool for polyurethane development, 456 chemical structures, 448 conclusions, 455 FMVSS foam samples, final chars, 451f FMVSS 302-rated foams, heat release data, 450t milligram scale flammability testing, 445



ASTM method, 446 dripping behavior, 445 environmental, health, and safety (EH&S) issues, 445 experimental section, 447 flame ignition, horizontal orientation, flame spread test, 447 FMVSS 302-rated foams, 448 introduction, 445 synthesizing, registering, and developing new chemicals, risks and costs minimization, 456 risk of catastrophic fire loss, 445 TB-117-rated foam data, 453 TB-117-rated foams, heat release data, 453 two-step decomposition, 455 Flame retardant PUR foams, smoke generation, 146f Flame retardants conclusions, 535 fire safety solutions, 533 alternative to Deca-BDE, 535 data gaps, 534 EU Community Rolling Action Plan (CoRAP), 534 GreenArmor™ and GreenCrest™, 535 research and development projects, 535 risk, 534 introduction, 524 regulation additional EPA activity, 528 Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), 530 chemical substances plan (CSP), 529 green chemistry initiative, 529 significant new use rule (SNUR), 528 regulations certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, restriction of use, 525 decabromodiphenyl ether (Deca-BDE), 528 EU, 525 EU risk assessment regulation, 526 North American activity, 527 pre-registration of phase-in substances under REACH, 526 SVHC authorization list, 527 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 527 regulatory issues and sustainability, 407 background, 524 global shift in chemical regulations and regulatory programs, 407

life-cycle assessments, 407 sustainable flame retardant landscape appropriate human health and environmental profile, 530 EEE applications, 532 effectiveness in use, 530 informed selection considerations, 531 innovative technologies, 531 principles of green chemistry, 532 sustainable flame retardant solutions, 536 use of particular flame retardant, 533 voluntary emissions control action program (VECAP™), 532 Flame retardant toxicity, 4 Flame retardation by phosphorus compounds acrylic polymers, 43 active in condensed or vapor phase, 39 conclusion, 48 general considerations, 39 highly effective flame retardants, 39 polyolefins and some related polymers, 41 Flame retarded polypropylene nanocomposites, melt dripping behavior characterization complex viscosity of flame retarded PP samples, 321f complex viscosity of polymers and their molten drops, 321t conclusions, 324 experimental effect of nanoclay and flame retardants, 315 mass percentages of various components in formulations, 313t melt dripping testing, 313 rheology, 315 sample, 312 flammability of polymers, 311 furnace and UL-94 equivalent test, 316f introduction, 311 mass loss as function of time, 320f melt dripping during UL94 vertical burning test, 317 melt dripping in furnace, 315 melt viscosity, 312 melt-processed polymeric materials, 312 molten drops characterization, 321 complex viscosities, 322 NH 1197 and FR 372, furnace tests, 316f



PP, PP containing clay and FRs, thermal analysis results, 323t PP, PP-NH 1197 and PP-E-NH 1197 drops, digital images, 317f real-time melt-dripping behavior, 311 rheology, 320 summary of melt dripping results for PP, 318t summary of melt/burn dripping results, 319t themogravimetric curves of polymer samples and their molten drops, 322f Flaming and non-flaming combustion, 194 Flammability of ABS with cellulose fibers, 156t Flammability of ABS with wood fibers, 155t Flammable Fabrics Act, 6 Flexible polyurethane foam (FPUF), 251 Flexible polyurethane foams, flame retardancy allyl-substituted compound, 258 boron- and phosphorus-containing aromatic compounds, 256 boronated and phosphonated terephtalic acid derivatives, 256 cellulose treated PU foam, 254 conclusion, 268 effect of PAED and melamine as flame retardants, 262t effect of PAPD and melamine as flame retardants, 263t EG and Fyrol PNX, 255 foam manufacturing process, 268 introduction, 251 linear flammability test, 255 melamine (co-additive to PAED), 262 melamine and TCPP, synergistic effect, 261 methyl-DOPO, 256f non-phosphorus additives, 252 exothermic oxidation, 253 slabstock flexible polyurethane foams, 253 sol-gel process, 252 phosphoramidates and melamine, synergism/antagonism acid catalyzed polyurethane bond scission, 267 antagonistic effect of melamine, 266 BKZ flammability test, 260t complex multistep degradation, 266 flame retardancy of TCPP containing foams, effect of melamine, 262t flame retardant action in FPUF, 267s flame retardants compounds, 259f

flammability results TCPP treated FPUF, 261t Foam E, thermal decomposition, 265f heat release rates of foams with and without any FR, 264f PAED and PAPD, synthesis, 259s PAPD + melamine treated foams, 266 PAPD and PAPD + melamine treated foams, PCFC analysis PCFC data for foams, 265t PFUF manufacturing, formulation, 260t phosphorus FRs, general structure, 258f phosphorus-based flame retardants, 256 reactivity, mechanical and fire properties, 253 smoke density and toxicity test, 255 solid flame retardants, application, 254 Flexible polyurethane foams, preparation, 140 Flexible PUR foams, inorganic flame retardant additives approach, 142 Foams, three-dimensional structures containing gas bubbles, 464 Forced-flaming behavior, 19 Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR), 209 FPI. See fire performance index (FPI); fire propagation index (FPI) FPUF. See flexible polyurethane foam (FPUF) FR natural fiber blends, property improvements base color improvements, 163 color improvements, 163 improved ductility, 164 improved ductility with added NBR, 164t FRP. See fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) FTIR. See fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) FT-IR of organo-modified sepiolite, 396 FTIR spectra of PMP and PMPN at different temperatures, 64f Fyrol PNX, 452 Fyrolflex® RDP, 147

G GCC. See ground calcium carbonate (GCC) Gel permeation chromatography (GPC), 237, 271 GFPA6. See Glass fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (GFPA6)



GFPA6-AP-MCA composites, TG and DTG curves, 171f GFPA6-AP-MPyP composites, TG and DTG curves, 172f GFPA6 composites AP/MCA could reduce CO production, 176 conclusions, 179 cone calorimetric analysis, 173 cone calorimetric data, 174t COP and TSP curves, 176f degradation, 171 degradation products and residue analysis, 178 char residues, digital photographs, 178f SEM images of residues, 179f small lumps char layer, 179 fire safety degree, 179 flame retardance, 173 gas fuel-dilution effect, 179 HRR curves, 174f thermogravimetry results, 170t UL-94 and LOI tests for composites, results, 173t Glass fiber reinforced materials, 175 Glass fiber reinforced PA6 flame, 167 Glass fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (GFPA6), 167 candlewick effect, 168 engineering plastic composite, 168 experimental materials, 169 measurements, 169 sample preparation, 169 introduction, 168 thermal degradation behavior, 170 Glass transition temperature values, 85 Global fire performance tests, introduction, 481 Global market of flame retardants, 9 Glycidyltrimethylammonium ions, 228 GPC. See gel permeation chromatography (GPC) Ground calcium carbonate (GCC), 205

H Halogenated polyurethanes, gas phase and char retardation, 291 Halogen free fire retardants, 392 Halogen-free flame retardant flexible polyurethane foams, 139 average smoke extinction area, 147

conclusion, 148 flame retardant additives list, 141t flammability evaluation, 141 introduction, 140 mechanism, 140 synergistic flame retardant effects, 148 HCC. See heats of complete combustion (HCC) HDT. See high heat distortion temperature (HDT) Heat release capacity (HRC), 57 Heat release rate (HRR), 254 Heats of complete combustion (HCC), 197 High heat distortion temperature (HDT), 113 High impact polystyrene (HIPS), 531 HIPS. See high impact polystyrene (HIPS) Hot disk technology, 213 HRC. See heat release capacity (HRC) HRR. See heat release rate (HRR) HT. See hydrotalcite (HT) Huggett’s relation, 362 Huntite and hydromagnesite, decomposition, 99 Hybrid organic-inorganic APP based LbL complex architectures, 337 Hydrated metal salts composites of ZnAc, PHRR and AMLR values, 92f enhance fire retardant properties of polymers, 90 epoxy/amine composites of ZnAc, 90 do not produce extra smoke, 92 heat release rate curves, 91f zinc acetate dihydrate (ZnAc), 90 fire retardant action, 92 Hydromagnesite, endothermic decomposition, 99 Hydrophilicity and hygroscopicity, 114 Hydrophobic polymer matrices, 408 Hydrotalcite (HT), 329 Hydroxyl terminated phosphate ester oligomers, 288 Hydroxy terminated oligomers condensation of phenyl phosphonic dichloride, diol, diphenol or diamine in excess, 288 molecular weight, GPC, 288

I IBC. See International Building Code (IBC) ICC. See International Code Council (ICC)



ICP-OES technique, 226 IEBC. See International Existing Building Code (IEBC) IFC. See International Fire Code (IFC) IFR. See intumescent flame retardant (IFR) IFRs. See intumescing flame retardants (IFRs) IMC. See International Mechanical Code (IMC) IMO. See International Maritime Organization (IMO) Incandescent melt-dripping phenomenon, 332 Inter-chain cyclizations, 43 Interior finish fire requirements, codes and standards, 497 NFPA 1 (fire code), 498 NFPA 101 (life safety code), 498 NFPA 501 (standard on manufactured housing), 498 NFPA 5000 (building construction and safety code), 498 NFPA 90A (standard for the installation of air-conditioning and ventilating systems), 498 UMC (Uniform Mechanical Code), 498 Interior finish in United States Codes building material, undesirable fire properties, 496 fire testing requirements, 495 ICC and NFPA codes and standards, development, 499 interior finish fire safety requirements, key locations, 499 interior trim, 496 interior wall and ceiling finish materials, fire tests, 500 ASTM E2573, site-fabricated stretch systems, 503 ASTM E2579, variety of wood products, 503 ASTM E2690 addresses testing caulks and sealants, 504 ASTM E2688 addresses testing tapes, 504 ASTM E84 test, 501 ASTM E84 test standard, 507 code classification purpose, 517 code requirements in U.S., 510 different burner placement and output, 510 discussion, 517 effects on Steiner tunnel results, 506 exception materials, 511 extended ASTM E84 test, 505

factory-finished metal ceiling and wall panels, 514 fire-retardant treated wood, extended ASTM E84 test, 513 foam plastic insulation used as wall or ceiling interior finish, 514 inorganic-reinforced cement, 507 insulated wall construction, standard fire test, 512 interior floor finish fire performance, traditional test, 516 interior floor finish materials, 514 interior wall and ceiling finish in US codes, requirements, 514t materials or products tested using ASTM E84, code classification, 511t minimum critical radiant flux values, 516 mounting instructions, 502 NFPA 265 test method, 509 plastic piping, 508 polypropylene and high density polyethylene, thermoplastic materials, 513 progressive combustion, 505 real-scale fire behavior, 512 referenced codes and standards, 518 room corner test, 509 smoke measurements, 506 standard practices, ASTM E2231, ASTM E2404, ASTM E2573 and ASTM E2599, 502 standard test methods, 505 Steiner tunnel test, 500 surface burning characteristics of building materials, standard test, 511 testing of materials at full tunnel width, 508 textile wall coverings, 507 introduction, 496 NFPA 286 room-corner test, 495 International Building Code (IBC), 497 International Code Council (ICC), 497 International Existing Building Code (IEBC), 497 International Fire Code (IFC), 497 International fire death rates per million population, 2f International Maritime Organization (IMO), 492 International Mechanical Code (IMC), 497 International Residential Code (IRC), 497 Intra-molecular cyclization interruption, radical mechanism, 45f



Intumescent char characterization, 64 Intumescent flame retardant (IFR), 52, 183 Intumescent flame retardant copolyester hot melt adhesive conclusion, 191 experimental carbonaceous residue, 190 cone calorimeter, 186f flame retardancy, 185 materials, 184 performance test, 184 PES/IFR and PES/IFR/3%4A, 190t sample preparation, 184 thermal degradation and charring behavior, 188 introduction, 183 polybasic acids and polyatomic alcohols, 183 Intumescent flame-retarded polypropylene composites Ni2+-Fe3+ layered double hydroxide, synergistic effects, 51 conclusion, 67 crystallization behavior, 59 experimental, 53 flame retardancy, 55 introduction, 52 MP/PEPA IFR system, 52 results and discussions, 55 thermal stability, 58 Intumescing flame retardants (IFRs), 224 IRC. See International Residential Code (IRC) Isocyanate-based monomer, 452

L Layered double hydroxide and metal oxide, 86 heterogeneous dispersion state, 86 thermal degradation studies, 87 Layered double hydroxide flame retardants, 407 Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) method, 409 cone calorimeter data, 418 comparison between residues, 422f conclusions, 423 d-spacing values, 414 exfoliate hectorite clays, 412 experimental section instruments and characterization, 409 materials, 409

PS/LDH nanocomposites by solution blending, preparation, 410 results and discussions, 411 surface modification and suspension stability of LDH, 410 synthesis of magnesium aluminum carbonate layered double hydroxides (Mg/Al-CO3-LDH), 410 high efficiency allowing for low loadings, 408 hydrophobic polymer matrix, 413 introduction, 408 LDH and ATH, differential scanning calorimetry curves (DSC), 418f LDH and LDH-DBP photographs of THF suspensions, 415f PXRD pattern, 414f LDH and LDH-SMM, 60min PXRD pattern, 413f LDH and surface modified LDH-DBP, sedimentation kinetics, 415f LDH synthesized by urea hydrolysis method, 411f LDHs surface modification and suspension stability, 413 thermal decomposition, 417 Mg/Al-CO3 LDH, organic modification, 408 nanocomposites, increase of viscosity, 420 organic siderophilic surface modifier, structure, 414f particle size distributions, 412f PS/LDH nanocomposites cone calorimeter data, 419t heat release rate curves, 420f PS/LDH-SMM 30min-DBP-5wt%, TEM images, 417f rose-like morphologies, disaggregation, 411 solution blending, compounding, 416 synthesis, morphology, and stirred media milling of Mg/Al-CO3 LDH, 411 time to ignition (ease of ignition), 420 Layered double hydroxides (LDHs), 407 LCA. See life cycle analysis (LCA) LDHs. See layered double hydroxides (LDHs) Lead-free soldering, 296 Life cycle analysis (LCA), 4 Limiting oxygen index (LOI), 41 Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), 152 List of oligomers synthesized, 275t


LLDPE. See linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) Loaded epoxy resins preparation, 308 LOI. See limiting oxygen index (LOI) Low surface crystalline boehmite, 308


M Magic angle spinning (MAS), 208 Magnesium dihydroxide (MDO), 302 Magnesium hydroxide (MDH), 142 MAS. See magic angle spinning (MAS) Mass loss capacity (MLC), 372 Mass loss rate (MLR), 175 Matrix mechanical and thermal properties, 117 toughness and rigidity, 118 Maximum heat release rate (MHRR), 264 MCA. See melamine cyanurate (MCA) MCC. See microscale combustion calorimeter (MCC) MDH. See magnesium hydroxide (MDH) MDO. See magnesium dihydroxide (MDO) Mechanistic aspects of flame retardation combustion begining condition, 38 elemental phosphorus and various compounds, used to retard flame, 37 introduction, 37 MEL. See melamine (MEL) Melamine (MEL), 183 Melamine cyanurate (MCA), 167 Melamine polyphosphate (MPP), 295 Melamine pyrophosphate (MPyP), 167 Metal-based additives, 84 Methyl methacrylate (MMA), 43 Methyl-DOPO gas-phase efficiency, 257 incomplete combustion, 256 proposed gas-phase mechanism, 256 ring-opened analogue, 257 Methylphenoxyphenyl-phosphinate (MPPP), 257f Methyltrimethoxysilane (MTM), 207 MHRR. See maximum heat release rate (MHRR) Michaelis-Arbrusov reaction, 127 Microscale combustion calorimeter (MCC), 362 Microscale combustion calorimetry testing, HRR curves of sample PMP and PMPN, 58f MLC. See mass loss capacity (MLC) MMA. See methyl methacrylate (MMA) MMT. See montmorillonite (MMT)

Modified clays, Cloisite family, 81 Mono- and di-substituted diethyl phosphonate, 124 Montmorillonite (MMT), 69 Montmorillonite-type clays, 80 MPP. See melamine polyphosphate (MPP) MPPP. See methylphenoxyphenylphosphinate (MPPP) MPyP. See melamine pyrophosphate (MPyP) MSiS. See polysiloxane rubbery core (MSiS) MTM. See methyltrimethoxysilane (MTM) Multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), 374 MWCNT. See multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) MWNT-based nanocomposite, 348

N Nanocomposite technology, 119, 120 Nanocomposites, self-extinguishing properties, 113 Nano-dispersed boehmite, 16 Nanofibrillated cellulose fibers (NFC), 224 Nano-filler clays, 120 nano-dispersion, 120 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 296 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 497 Neat PET and PET coated by single-step adsorption of CloNa after cold plasma pre-activation, cone calorimetry data, 331 NEMA. See National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) NFC. See nanofibrillated cellulose fibers (NFC) NFC-PO4Q. See quaternized cellulose phosphate (NFC-PO4Q) NFP 92501 Epiradiateur test, 493 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Ni2+-Fe3+ LDH, PMP and PMPN, TG and DTG data, 59t NMR. See Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR); nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Non-halogen additive modified polyurethane foams, fire performance, 142t



Non-phosphorus and phosphorus-based FRs, synergistic interaction, 255 Nonreactive salt-like additives, 297 Novel biomass-based non-halogenated FR styrenic blends, 151. See Cellulose and wood flour cellulose and wood flour, 155 conclusions, 165 experimental details flammability, color, and mechanical characterization, 154 materials used, 153 morphology characterization, 154 sample preparation, 153 thermal characterization, 154 introduction, 152 starch, flammability, 162 starch vs cellulose, 162t UL-94 test, 152 4N-RDP. See resorcinol bis(N,N′diarylphosphoramidate) (4N-RDP) Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 123, 237 Nucleophilic species, cyclization initiated, 45f

O OBDPO. See octabromodiphenyl oxide (OBDPO) Octabromodiphenyl oxide (OBDPO), 152 Oligomer synthesis, general method, 274s Oligomeric hexafluoroisopropyl 4,4′-bisphenol-A-benzyl, 273 Openness or porosity of PUF, air permeability, 462 Organic phosphate, 114 Organic polymers, heat capacity, 98 Organohalogens, organobromides, organochlorine compounds, flame retardants, 5 Organo-MMT, 120 Organophosphorus compounds, used as flame retardants, 235 Organophosphorus moieties, classes, 258 Organo-sepiolite, 397 Oxyacetylene torch, 345

P Pad-bake phosphorylating method, 224 PAN. See polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Particle size distribution (PSD), 409

PBAT. See poly(butylene adipate-coterephthalate) (PBAT) PBB. See polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) PBDE. See polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) PBDPO. See pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PBDPO) PC. See polycarbonate (PC) PC/ABS, PC/ABS + BDP, PC/ABS + 10 wt.% talc and PC/ABS + BDP + 10 wt.% cone calorimeter residues, 27f deformation characteristic, 27 intumescent behavior, 27 fire behavior, 24 fire behavior, pHRR, THR/ML, 26t fire properties, 27 forced-flaming behavior, 25 cone calorimeter, 19 gas-phase mechanism, 27 gravimetric gas sorption measurements, diffusion coefficients for oxygen, 18 HRR and THR, 25f melt rheology, 19 morphologies, 17 phosphorus analysis, 27 TEM bright field image, 18f thermal decomposition, 19, 21t activation energy (EA) versus conversion and pyrolysis product release rates, 21f decomposition scheme of PC, 23f mass loss and mass loss rates, 20f melt viscosity, characteristics, 24f styrene as main decomposition product, 21 TG-FTIR measurements, 22 volatile pyrolysis products, 22 thermogravimetry (TG), thermal decomposition investigation, 18 PC/ABS + BDP + talc with various talc concentrations, 28 carbonaceous charring or flame inhibition, 32 cone calorimeter results, 33f diffusion coefficients, 29t linear dependency, 29 non-linear dependency, 29 fire behavior, 31t LOI plotted against talc content, 32f mass loss and mass loss rate, 28f maximum mass loss rate and mass loss, increased talc content, 28 melt viscosity, characteristics, 30f rheological properties, 30 talc acts as inert filler, 32 thermal decomposition, 29t



PCBMPP. See phloroglucinol tris(cyclic 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-propanediol phosphate) (PCBMPP) PCFC. See pyrolysis combustion flow calorimeter (PCFC); pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC) PC-PDMS. See PC-polydimethylsiloxane (PC-PDMS) PC-polydimethylsiloxane (PC-PDMS), 119 PCPP. See phloroglucinol tris(cyclic 1,3-propanediol phosphate) (PCPP) PDMS. See polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) PE. See polyethylene (PE) Peak heat release rate, 15, 86, 330 Peak smoke production rate (PSPR), 187 Pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PBDPO), 152 Pentaerythritol (PER), 183 PER. See pentaerythritol (PER) Performance of ZHS, dual phase mechanism, 145 PES. See copolyester (PES) PET. See poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) PET fabrics coated by 10 BL silica, SEM micrographs, 332f PET fabrics coated by 10BL POSS/ZrP and 10BL SiO2/ZrP, SEM micrographs, 333f PET fabrics coated by single step adsorption of HT, SiO2, CloNa, SEM micrographs, 329f PET-CO. See polyester-cotton blends (PET-CO) PET-CO fabrics coated by 10 QL and 10 BL + BL, SEM micrographs performed, 338f PET-CO fabrics coated by 20BL Chi/APP cone combustion residue, 337f SEM micrographs, 335f PFCC. See pyrolysis-flaming-combustion calorimetry (PFCC) Phloroglucinol tris(cyclic 2,2-dimethyl1,3-propanediol phosphate) (PCBMPP), 115s Phloroglucinol tris(cyclic 1,3-propanediol phosphate) (PCPP), 115s Phosphate-urethane block copolymers synthesis, 271 characterization block copolymers, DSC characteristics, 282t block copolymers in nitrogen and (air), thermal analysis, 283t FT-IR analysis, 274 gel perameation chromatograhy (GPC), 281

GPC of example block copolymers by GPC, 282t 1HNMR and 13CNMR, 274 oxygen index, 284 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), 281 thermal analysis, 281 experimental materials oligomeric hexafluoroisopropyl 4,4′-bisphenol-A-benzyl phosphate synthesis, 273 phosphate urethane block copolymer synthesis, 273 experimental results, 288 introduction, 272 Phosphinate, flame-retardant mechanism, 168 Phosphonates, chelating agent characteristics, 143 Phosphorus moiety, 131 Phosphorus-containing flame retardants, 116 self-extinguishing property, 120 Phosphorus-nitrogen-containing triazine derivatives antiflammable properties, 123 conclusions, 135 experimental diethyl 4,6-dichloro-1,3,5-triazin-2ylphosphonate (TPN1), synthesis, 124 dimethyl (4,6-dichloro-1,3,5-triazin2-yloxy)methyl Phosphonate (TPN3), synthesis, 124 fabric treatment, 126 limiting oxygen index (LOI) and flammability test (vertical and 45° angle), 127 materials and measurements, 124 tetraethyl 6-chloro-1,3,5-triazin2,4-diyldiphosphonate (TPN2), synthesis, 124 tetramethyl (6-chloro-1,3,5-triazine2,4-diyl)bis(oxy)bis(methylene) diphosphonate (TPN4), synthesis, 125 fabric treatment and phosphorus and nitrogen contents, 129 flame retardant treated fabric, thermal properties, 131 flame retardants (TPN1-TPN4), synthesis and characterization, 127 promising flame retardants, 136 treated fabric of TPN1 and TPN2, 131f



Phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated polyurethane block copolymer, percent char residue, 291f Phosphorylating agents, 224 Phosphorylation of cellulose, 224 PLA. See poly(lactic acid) or polylactide (PLA) PLA/PBAT. See poly(lactic acid)/ poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT) PLA/PBAT blends, 432 Plasma-etched fabrics, 330 PMMA. See poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) PMMA and PS combined with CB[6], XRD traces, 73 PMP and PMPN, SEM micrographs of inter char layer, 65f Poly-addition and poly-condensation, silicone rubber cross-linking, 206 Poly(3-aminopropyl methylsiloxane bis(3-hydroxyphenyl spirocyclic pentaerythritol bisphosphate)) (PSBPBP), 116s Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), 392 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), 392 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), 427 Polycarbonate and its blends halogen-free flame retardancy conclusion, 121 introduction, 113 nanocomposite technology, 119 Polycarbonate (PC), 113 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 205 Polyelectrolyte multilayers, 328 Polyene cross-links, 99 Polyester-cotton blends (PET-CO), 335 Polyethylene (PE), 41 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), 329 Polyhedral oilgomeric silesquioxane (POSS), 344 Poly(lactic acid) composites bio-derived and biodegradable polymers, 224 conclusions, 232 degree of quaternization in cellulose, 226 dynamic mechanical analysis, 231 dynamic mechanical analysis of composites, 232 experimental instrumentation, 226 materials, 225 fiber characterization, 226

flame-retarded using cellulose-based intumescing flame retardants, 223 horizontal and vertical burn tests, 231 introduction, 224 PLA composite properties, 229 potentiometric Cl− concentrations, 227 thermal and burning properties, 223 thermal stability of PLA composites using APP-based IFRs, 230f thermal stability of PLA composites using cellulose phosphate fibers, 230f UL-94 rests of PLA composites, 231t Poly(lactic acid) or polylactide (PLA), 224 Poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT), 427 Polymer structures, fire stability approaches, 11 Polymer/CB[6]/20A-MMT, preparation, 71 Polymer-clay nanocomposite, 74 Polymeric materials, phosphorus containing compounds as backbone, 272 Polyolefins and related polymers, 41 Polyphenylsilsesquioxane (PPSQ), 118s Polyphosphate polyurethane block copolymers, 290 conclusions, 292 hydrogen bonds, mechanical integrity, 290 microphase segregation, 290 olefinic alcohol as chain extender, 292 Polypropylene (PP), 41 Polypropylene/sepiolite composite thermal stability and fire retardancy, 391 composites thermal stability analysis, 399 conclusion, 405 cone calorimetric characterization, 401 dynamic mechanical analysis, 398 introduction, 392 LOI and UL94 testing, 400 materials and experimental, 393 mechanical properties, 398 modification of sepiolite, 395 morphology of (nano)composite, 396 polymer-clay nanocomposites, 402 PP, PP/sepolite and PP/organo-sepiolite composites, HRR curves, 402f PP and its composites, 398 PP and its organic composites, 400t PP/sepiolite and PP/organo-sepiolite, TEM images, 397f PP/sepiolite and PP/organo-sepiolite composites, 395f, 396f



conclusions and propositions of future work, 387 evaluate flame retardancy of polymers, 361 FTIR-PCFC and FTIR-TGA couplings, 388 halogen-free polyolefin compounds, 387 heat of combustion, discrepancy, 384 heat of combustion in PCFC and in oxygen bomb calorimeter, 384f important aspects activation energy, 366 activation energy of pyrolysis, 365 anaerobic versus aerobic pyrolysis, 364 combustion, 366 critical temperature and oxygen rate, 366 FTIR spectra of gases, 369f FTIR-PCFC coupling, 368 heat release capacity (HRC), 363 heterogeneous materials, 363 PE and filled PE under anaerobic pyrolysis and aerobic pyrolysis, HRR curves, 365f phosphorus containing molecules, measured versus calculated THR, 371f polymers, combustion efficiency profiles, 368f Van Krevelen approach, predicting flammability, 370 various modified polystyrenes, combustion efficiency, 367f well-known Kissinger method, 365 introduction, 361 mass loss rate, 374 one-dimensional pyrolysis model, 380 and other calorimetry methods, correlations, 374 and other flammability tests, correlations flame spread tests for wires, 387 heat of gasification, 386 limiting oxygen index, 385 UL94, 385 other physical effects, 382 PA11 and PA11 filled with nanoboehmites, surface temperature, 382f PA11 decomposition, 372 PA11 pure and filled, 372 peak of heat release rate in cone calorimeter of mineral fillers, 380 pHRR in cone calorimeter and first pHRR in PCFC, comparison, 376f pHRR of PBT, 376

primitive sepiolite, acidic sepiolite, organo-sepiolite, FT-IR spectrum, 396f pristine sepiolite, acidic sepiolite and organo-sepiolite, x-ray diffraction patterns, 395f Polysiloxane rubbery core (MSiS), 117 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 17 Polyurethane (PU), 251 Polyurethane foams (PUF), 459 POSS. See polyhedral oilgomeric silesquioxane (POSS) Potential FR mineral fillers, heat absorbed, 101f Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), 409 PP. See polypropylene (PP) PPSQ. See polyphenylsilsesquioxane (PPSQ) Printed wired boards (PWB), 295 Pristine epoxy/amine thermoset external irradiation of 50 kW/m2, 93f heat release rate curves, 87f Pristine polymer, 84 PSBPBP. See poly(3-aminopropyl methylsiloxane bis(3-hydroxyphenyl spirocyclic pentaerythritol bisphosphate)) (PSBPBP) PSD. See particle size distribution (PSD) PSPR. See peak smoke production rate (PSPR) PTFE. See polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) PU. See polyurethane (PU) PUF. See polyurethane foams (PUF) PUF morphology, formulation and processing parameters, 464 PUR foams flame retardants and inorganic flame retardant additives combination, 144 flame retardants and reactive silicone combination, 147 phosphorus flame retardants, 143 phosphorus and halogen-phosphorus based additives modified polyurethane foams, 143t PWB. See printed wired boards (PWB) PXRD. See powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) Pyrolysis-combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC) apparent cone calorimeter temperature versus combustion efficiency, 379f and calorimeter, modes-of-action, 377 characterize flammability, 370 combining PCFC and TGA, 371 combustion efficiency, 377


RT-FTIR spectra of PMP and PMPN, different pyrolysis temperatures, 63f


R1 versus R2 graph for EVA28-MDH formulations, 378f R1 versus R2 graph for more than 60 formulations, 378f technique to understand fire behavior of material, 387 thermal barrier effect, 375, 377 cone calorimeter test, 376 thermal stability, 380 thermo-physical properties, 381 total heat release, discrepancy, 387 Pyrolysis-flaming-combustion calorimetry (PFCC), 194 Pyro-/ultra- or poly-phosphoric acid, 175

S

Q QL. See quad-layer (QL) QNFC. See quaternized cellulose (QNFC) Quad-layer (QL), 337 Quaternized cellulose (QNFC), 225 Quaternized cellulose phosphate (NFC-PO4Q), 225

R Radical induced grafting of maleic anhydride on to PP, 41f RDP. See resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP) Reactive organophosphorus compounds and synergistic additives, flame retardant mixtures, 302 Red phosphorus, 114 Reduced ignition propensity, 460 Resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), 114, 153 low volatility and high heat stability characteristics, 147 Resorcinol bis(N,N′-diarylphosphoramidate) (4N-RDP), 116s intermolecular transesterification reactions, 116 P–N rich residue, 116 Restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS), 183 RHF. See rice hull flour (RHF) Rice hull flour (RHF), 225 RoHS. See restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS) Rose-like morphologies, disaggregation, 411

Sample PMP and PMPN DSC exotherms, 61f fitted Raman curves of outer residual char, 67f HRR curves, 56f LOI values and UL-94 testing results, 55t microscale combustion calorimetry data, 58t onset temperature, peak temperature and enthalpy of crystallization, 60t Raman curves of outer residual char, 66f total intensity of pyrolysis product, 62f Sample PMP and PMPN at 35 kW/m2 cone calorimetry data, 56t total heat release curves, 57f SAN. See styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 329 Scheme of PCFC apparatus, 362f SEA. See specific extinction area (SEA) Selected reactive flame retardants for epoxies, 299f Self-extinguishing PLA/ECOFLEX blends, 427 SEM. See scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Significant new use rule (SNUR), 528 Silica (SiO2), 329 Silica-based coatings, multistep adsorption, 331 Siliconated polyurethane block copolymers, 271 Siloxanes, 117 SiO2. See silica (SiO2) Smoke production rate (SPR), 187, 391 Smoldering in flexible polyurethane foams average MLMockup versus air permeability, 468f bun-to-bun variability and in-bun variability, 468 cell size decreases smoldering increases, 477 completely open-cell foams, 470 conclusion, 476 confocal image histogram and basic statistical analysis, 475f image analysis, 462 conventional PUF, morphology, 460



decrease in cell size promotes smoldering, 472 effect of air permeability (φ), 466 effect of apparent density (ρ), 466 effect of cell size, 473 effect of specific surface area (SSA), 469 experimental formulation identification names, 463t formulations, 464 macro analyze particle, 462 materials, 461 results and discussion, 464 sample characterization, 461 sample preparation, 461 foam morphology, general considerations, 471 higher yield of toxic carbon monoxide, 459 introduction, 459 limited oxygen-supply rate, smoldering propensity, 470 mechanisms promoting increase in air permeability, schematic drawing, 472f MLMockup versus specific surface area, 469 mockup test, 460 numerical simulation, 466 PUF, combination of strut-generated and window-generated surfaces, 473 PUF degradation, affected by SSA, 469 PUF formulation, naturalconvection smoldering increases with air permeability, 466 rate of polyol/TDI reaction, tin catalyst, 464 sample of formulation F16, confocal image, 474f smoldering foam and non-smoldering foam, confocal images, 471f smoldering (MLMockup) for eight buns of formulation F13, 470 smoldering versus air permeability, 467f specific surface area, strut thickness, 473 upholstery cover fabric smoldering ignition resistance test, 461 values of density (ρ), air permeability (φ), specific surface area (SSA) and smoldering (MLMockup), 465t values of density (ρ) vs. smoldering (MLMockup), 466 SNUR. See significant new use rule (SNUR) Sodium montmorillonite (CloNa), 329 Sol-gel process, 252 Specific extinction area (SEA), 352 Specific surface area (SSA), 462

SPR. See smoke production rate (SPR) SSA. See specific surface area (SSA) Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles, 133 Steiner tunnel fire test (ASTM E84), 495 Strategies to reduce flammability of polymeric material, 38 Structural fire deaths, 1 Structural fires, 1 Styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN), 120 Styrenic oligomers flammability experimental analytical techniques, 237 materials, 236 impact of phosphorus and phosphorus/nitrogen, 235 combustion, heat release rate, 246f conclusions, 247 experimental, 238 glass transition temperatures, 243t heat release rate, 245f homopolymers combustion, heat release (HR) values, 246t infrared spectra, 241f phosphoramidate series, 243 standard radical techniques, 242 styrene monomers containing flame-retarding moieties, polymerization, 241s styrene polymers bearing phosphorus-containing pendants, thermal degradation, 244f styrenic polymers, proton NMR spectra, 242f synthesis of styrene monomers containing flame-retarding moieties, 240s thermal degradation, 243f thermal degradation data, 245t unsubstituted poly(styrene), 244 Styrenic polymers, 47 char formation and flame retardance, 47 conclusion, 48 Substance of very high concern (SVHC), 526 Surface area of PUF, Brunauer-EmmettTeller (BET) measurements, 462 SVHC. See substance of very high concern (SVHC)

T Tailor-made synthetic procedures, 69 Talc



hydrated magnesium silicate, 16 used as inert filler in plastics, 16 TB-117 foams, 448 TBBA. See tetrabromo bisphenol A (TBBA) TBC. See 4-tert-butylcatechol (TBC) TCPP. See tris-(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) TDI. See toluene diisocyanate (TDI) TEM. See transmission electron microscope (TEM) 4-Tert-butylcatechol (TBC), 236 Testing material ignitability, 202 Tetrabromo bisphenol A (BBA), 194, 295 Tetrabromodiglycidylether of bisphenol A (BDBA), 194 Tetra-2,6-dimethyl resorcinol diphosphate (DMP-RDP), 152 Tetramethylsilane (TMS), 208, 237 Textile flame retardancy introduction, 327 surface adsorption techniques, 328 surface-assembled nanoarchitectures, 327 cold plasma pre-treatment, 339 complex LbL architectures, 339 conclusions, 339 novel and non-conventional procedures, 328 PET fabrics, silica coating, 331 PET textiles, cold plasma surface treatment, 330 PET thermal degradation, 331 silica-based coatings, multistep adsorption, 331 single-step adsorption, 329 Textiles and textile products, classes of flammability performance, 133 TG. See thermogravimetry (TG) TG and DTG curves of Ni2+-Fe3+ LDH, PMP and PMPN in air, 59f TGA. See thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) Thermal decomposition mechanism of polypropylene, 316s Thermal oxidative degradation, 63 Thermal/base catalyzed cracking of phosphonate ester group and formation of acidic nucleophilic species, 44f Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 72, 76, 116, 123, 225, 264 Thermogravimetry residues, 22 Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), 256, 343 Thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites

high-temperature flammability and mechanical properties, 343 burn tests, 350 effect of nanoparticle loading on onset of storage modulus depression, 357f experimental, 346 flammability studies, 347 high resolution SEM images of virgin and burnt TPU/MWNT/10 after UL 94 test, 349f mass loss of neat and 5% PNC cone calorimeter test at 50 kW/m2, 350f summary and conclusions, 359 TPU and TPU/CNF/15 nanocomposites, storage modulus and loss modulus, 358f TPU nanocomposites, dynamic mechanical analysis, 354 TPU/Cl nanocomposites, variation of storage modulus versus temperature, 354f TPU/CNF nanocomposites, variation of storage modulus versus temperature, 356f TPU/MWNT nanocomposites, variation of storage modulus versus temperature, 355f introduction, 344 storage modulus, loss modulus and tan delta, 345 Thermoplastic resin sales by major market 2011, 8t THR. See total heat released (THR) THR, mass-based value, 200 THR/mass loss (THR/ML), 25 THR/ML. See THR/mass loss (THR/ML) Time to ignition (TTI), 56, 330 TLC. See thin layer chromatography (TLC) TMS. See tetramethylsilane (TMS) Toluene diisocyanate (TDI), 461 Torch test fire testing method, 205 Total heat release (THR), 254 Total heat released (THR), 15 Total smoke production (TSP), 176 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 528 TPOSS. See trisilanolphenyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (TPOSS) TPP. See triphenyl phosphate (TPP) TPU. See thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) TPU nanocomposites dynamic mechanical analysis, 353 flame retardant properties, 344 Trans-esterification reactions, 43 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 409


Triarylphosphate, flame retardant filler, 272 Triazine and its derivatives, 124 Triphenyl phosphate (TPP), 114, 153 Tris-(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP), 252 Trisilanolphenyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (TPOSS), 119 TSCA. See Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) TSP. See total smoke production (TSP) TTI. See time to ignition (TTI) Typical wire and cable formulation, 103t

Vapor phase flame retardation, elementary steps, 40f Various nanoscopic additives, increasing use, 49 Vertical flammability test, 123 Vertical UL 94 test, 346 Volatilized products analysis, 60 FTIR spectrums, 62f Voluminous carbonaceous char layer, 253


W U UL-94 test (vertical burning test), 43, 51, 84, 114, 151, 167, 173, 223 Uncontrolled combustion, 38 Unexpected FR performance of micro and nano-boehmites, 102 Unmodified variants, 38 Unzipping reaction, schematic illustration, 218f Upholstery cover fabric smoldering ignition resistance test, 461 Urethane bond, acid catalyzed decomposition, 265 Urethane bond scission, 268 U.S. production, sales and captive use, 7t

V

Well-known flame inhibition effect of halogens, 366 Well-known Kissinger method, 365

X X-ray diffraction (XRD), 71 XRD. See X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Z Zeolite 4A, 183 synergistic agent, 184 ZHS. See zinc hydorxystannate (ZHS) Zinc hydorxystannate (ZHS), 139 Zinc stannate (ZS), 139 ZS. See zinc stannate (ZS)

Van Krevelen approach, predicting flammability, 370


BDBA, 196 cone calorimetry data, summary, 196 t gas-phase

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