Statue of Fray Fernando Trejo y Sanabria, Founder (1613) of the Univer sidad Nacional d e Córdoba This is the second oldest university in South America. It antecedes the founding of Harvard University by 23 years. (See page 3.)
Chemical Education in Argentina J. A. SHELLENBERGER Corporaei6n p a r a la Promoci6n del Intereambio, S . A., Buenos Aires, Argentina
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HERE is now a revival of interest and a more smcere and sympathetic desire on the part of the . peoples of both the North and South American continents to achieve mutual appreciation. In recognition of the importance which education assumes in the promulgation of Inter-American collaboration, i t may be opportune to present for the benefit of North American educators a brief description of the educational background of students of chemistry in Argentina as an example of the scientific training offered in LatinAmerican schools. The value of an interchange of students between the two Americas, as a means of creating better understanding, is now thoroughly recognized. Student traffic between North and South America has increased greatly in the past few years. However, in order that students from abroad may receive the maximum benefit from a usually brief sojourn in the realms of education in a foreign land, it is desirable that those persons responsible for arranging the courses of study have full knowledge of the students' educational environment. The present discussion is an effort to propagandize the technical educational background of chemistry students of Argentina in order that they may be understandingly assisted in arranging study programs in the universities of the United States. Argentina is generally accredited with the best educational system in Latin America. The evidence upon which this contention is based is quite convincing when the extent of illiteracy, education appropriations, number of educators per capita, availability of libraries, and other educational facilities are compared with other Latin-American countries. The basic organuation of education in Argentina is very similar to that of the United States. It is comprised of three units, namely, elementary, secondary, and university. The system differs in that the elementary unit consists of six grades (Grade 1 occupies two years) in contrast to the eight-year unit in the United States but, on the other hand, the secondary units include five grades compared with the four-year high-school course in the United States. The usual Argentinian university course requires five years; consequently, the total period of education from the &st grade through university consumes the same length of time in both countries, and the age groups correspond very closely. One significant difference is that in the United States the university graduate receives the Bachelor of Science degree, while in Argentina the Doctor's degree is granted. Elementary education is very extensive in Argentina, and even in remote sections of the country the schools
form an integral part of the community. Illiteracy is reported to be comparatively low for the country as a whole. Probably the most serious weakness in the educational system is the scarcity of secondary schools. In many suable communities there is no opportunity for children to continue their education beyond the sixth grade. In the grades there is frequent segregation of the sexes. Both boys and girls wear white smocks in the classrooms, and good discipline is usually maintained in the classes by the instructors. Although Roman Catholicism is the "official" religion of Argentina, there are few parochial schools a t the primary level in the country, and the teaching of religion in the public schools was abolished many years ago. There is usually reasonable opportunity for freedom of religion and freedom of thought in the educational institutions. There are six different kinds of secondary schools in Argentina, namely, national colleges, normal schools, commercial schools, industrial schools, agricultural schools, and trade schools. O i y graduates of the first four classes of secondary schools are eligible to enter a university. The agricultural and trade school curriculums are entirely practical, and no attempt is made to prepare students for additional education. Because Argentina's racial make-up, culture, religion, and trade are closely tied to Europe, it is only natural that her school system should reflect similar iduences. However, instruction in the schools is considered to be only mediocre. The criticism frequently made is that instruction consists of the memorization of assorted information by the students, without su5cient effort being made by the teaching staffs to relate the subjects or to emphasize applications. One difficulty is that too many subjects are taught. Probably the most unfortunate feature of secondary education in Argentina is the evident lack of inspirational teaching. The lack of stimulation of student curiosity during secondary education can be held accountable for the reluctance with which university students choose scientific careers. The student is apparently seldom infused with a desire to engage actively in creative scientificwork. In the college preparatory secondary schools (colegios nacionales), the curriculum includes courses in inorganic and organic chemistry. Two or three hours per week for two years are devoted to these subjects. Chemistry is also taught in industrial secondary schools. The textbooks used are a standardized type for elementary chemistry, and supplementary material is seldom given out. Laboratory experiments, if any, are nearly always conducted by the instructor while the students merely watch.
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Such is the chemical educational background of the students before they enter the university. Firrl Year Introduction toehemistry (inorganic) Mathematics Second Ycnr Qvalitative ~nalyais Organic chemistry (aliphatic compounds) Mathemsties Physic. Thbd Ycor Quantitativeannlysis Organic chemistry (eyelie compounds) Physics Fourlh Yeor Indurtriai chemistry Phyried chemistry Physics
Fifth Yeor Indu~tridchemistElstrochemiotry Thcrmodyoamies Food ehemirtry lndvrtriai microhiolog~ Toxicology Biological noslyair
curriculum selected. The group of subjects listed for the Gfth year is representative of the courses offered by the various universities. The students enrol for only those subjects which are required. The thesis ADMINISTRATIOX BUILDINGOF THE U N I V B R S ~ D A DNACIONALwork is frequently concluded after the 6fth year. DEL LITORAL, LOCATED IN THE CITY OF SANTA Fh. THISUNIAs previously mentioned, the customary period of VERSITY MAINTAINS SOMEOF ITSFACULTIES IN ROSARIO, AND RECENTLY HASORGANIZED BRANCHES IN THE CITIESOF PAR AN^ university training is five years, although for chemical AND CORRIENTES. engineering the period is sometimes six years, while in agriculture it may be four. However, the school year There are six universities in Argentina, and five of in Argentina consists of only 22 to 24 weeks. When these grant degrees to students who have specialized in comparing the length of study by years, it is necessary chemistry. (The Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, to remember that the four-year university term in the located in Mendoza, was only organized in 1939 and United States represents approximately the equivalent has therefore not as yet had time to grant degrees.) of Argentina's five-year period. Chemistry is taught by the lecture system. The Permission to enrol in a university is based upon evidence that the secondary educational unit has been contacts between the professors and students are more completed. For example, the National Colleges issue a formal and even less frequent than are similar relationNational Bachelor degree which is acceptable for uni- ships in the United States. Generally, specific textversity entrance. Some university departments con- books or sets of mimeographed notes are recommended duct entrance examinations to obtain a more uniformly for each course. There are many good chemistry texttrained student body and to restrict enrollement. The books in the Spanish language. Some of them are entering students register for the same chemistry translations from standard works in other languages, courses regardless of their secondary school training usually either German or English, while others have been written by members of the faculties of Argentinian in science. Chemistry curriculums of the universities are prac- universities. Because of the limited sale possibilities, tically identical with those offered by North American there are difficulties in keeping textbooks up to date, universities and colleges. There is the customary divi- but this disadvantage is counteracted to some extent sion of the chemistry courses among the science, en- by the linguistic ability of most of the students of the gineering, and medical faculties. It is difficult to country. They are able to read in other languages generalize regarding the requirements for graduation in supplementary material which is made available in the the various universities. However, the following pro- libraries, and some of the better students avail themgram gives a rough indication of the curriculum for selves of this privilege. However, the average student chemistry majors. Obviously, the ratio of lecture to seldom studies anything except his "apunte" which is laboratory work is subject to considerable variation in the examination prompt-book. The habit of skipping lectures is very prevalent in the the different institutions. Students have no opportunity to choose electives, universities. Since neither examinations nor quizzes consequently the specialized chemical courses taken are given, except a t the end of the term, the students during the fourth and lifth years will depend upon the know that there will be no damaging record of their ab-
The actual process of conducting the examinations will vary in the diierent institutions and even within the same institution, but generally from two to four professors serve as an examining committee. In a large class it requires several days to complete an examination, and many students spend considerable time waiting for their turn. The examinations are open to anyone who wishes to be present, and not infrequently a student will find even a large lecture room completely occupied by a none too orderly audience. When a name is called, the student reports to the examination committee and by means of a "bolillero," or lottery, two numbers are obtained by chance. The numbers thus selected correspond to the general questions on the examination list, such as the example previously cited, but since the student will be examined on only one question a few minutes of study are permitted before a choice of questions is demanded by the committee. The examination based on the question selected will generally last from 10 to 30 minutes. The committee does not usually indicate whether the student has passed or failed a t the termination of the questioning, but, of course, in most cases the result is obvious. There are, no doubt, advantages to the system of oral examinations. Probably the most valuable potential feature of this system is that the students could be made to think "on their feet." Actually, as most of the examinations are conducted, the students are primed to repeat by heart what they have memorized. Also, there is a certain amount of dignity and opportunity for showmanship under this system which both professors and studeuts appear to enjoy. The oral examination procedure is flexible enough to permit many approaches to each question, and i t offers a fair opportunity to test each student's knowledge of the subject. The training received through years of experience with oral examinations is no doubt largely responsible for the ease with which public addresses are made without the embarassment characteristic of similar efforts in the United States. Personality, appearance, and speech are definite attributes that are not entirely disregarded in the examination system. There are, of course, many disadvantages to the oral examination system, one of the principal ones being the length of time required to complete an examination if the class is large. Another drawback is the opportunity i t affords for vague and indefinite answers to questions. The system encourages conversation a t the expense of accuracy of expression. Frequent written examinations must certainly provide a better means of determining the student's mastery of chemistry than a few Primary, sccondary, and tertiary alcohols: Occurrence, modes minutes of oral quizzing. Also, written answers to of formation, and synthesis. Isomerism and nomenclature. questions can be graded i m ~ a r t i a uOn ~ a cornPhysical and chemical properties. &idation, esterifitation, parative basis without consideration of superficial inalcoholates. Principles of alcoholic fermentation. Newberg's fluence. I t is impossible to accomplish this with oral theory. Alcoholic beverages and denatured alcohol. Industrial examinations for the reason that each is difuse of ethyl alcohol. Properties of propyl, butyl, and m y 1 alcohols. Optical activity. Le Bel's and Van't Hoff's theories. ferent. Before granting a degree, some of the institutions reVinyl and ally1 alcohols. ropert ti^^ of the terpenes, citronello], citral, linalool, and propargyl alcohol. quire the presentation of a thesis which is generally
sences. They also realize that in most cases their professors do not have sufficient industrial contacts or research experience to incorporate into the lectures bits of chemical knowledge not to be found by reading a set assignment. Laboratory instruction in chemistry is decidedly weak in the universities. The reasons for this sitnation may not be entirely evident, but contributing causes are the deficiency of funds for the maintenance of laboratories and the lack of opportunity for employment in a laboratory after graduation. These two reasons alone are sufficient to cause the lack of emphasis on laboratory instruction. Most of the laboratories are woefully deficient in chemical equipment, but even the equipment available is seldom used to the fullest extent. Except during the regular class periods, the laboratories are nearly always deserted, and even during a class period, one observes but little of the activity which characterizes a university laboratory in the United States where many students are simultaneously and independently setting up their own experiments for which they will be held responsible. Even in the laboratory, the studeuts are immaculately dressed. Chemistry is definitely taught as a "white-collar" occupation. White smocks are worn, and it is apparently unethical for students to remove their coats, vests, or neckties, or to roll up their sleeves and really go to work on an experiment. Most experiments are conducted in groups of two or more students, and not infrequently one experiment is "observed" by the entire class. Laboratory notebooks are usually maintained in very good order. To complete any chemistry course, a final oral examination must be passed. Examinations are held only a t stated periods which are made known to the students in advance. The oral examination system is used to cover both lecture and laboratory work, although generally the student is permitted or even instructed to make use of the blackboard for writing equations, reactions, formulas, or for making sketches of apparatus or industrial flow sheets. The examination questions are either published or mimeographed for distribution to the students in advance of the examination date. The system of giving students a list of the examination questions is unique according to North American customs, but in practice the system is much less helpful than it appears on k s t thought. The questions are so general and extensive that they serve only as study guides. The following question chosen a t random from a typical examination list of 25 questions on elementary organic chemistry will serve as an example.
based on laboratory experimentation but not necessarily on research. Occasionally a good thesis is turned out, but most of the manuscripts indicate a lack of both scientific maturity and editing. The subjects of the theses chosen favor theoretical considerations, which leads one to conclude that apparently there still remain in Argentina's educational system remnants of the old classical idea that qualification for scholarship necessarily implies divorcement from utilitarian reasoning. Graduate chemists receive either the degree of Doctor a Quimica (Doctor of Chemistry) or Ingaiero Quimica (Chemical Engineer), depending upon the custom of the university. Since no graduate work is offeredin the universities, there are no degrees offered in recognition of advance study or research. There is nothing in the educational system which corresponds to the requirements for the M.S. or Ph.D. degrees. Graduates of the universities have had theoretical training more or less equivalent to the requirements for the Master of Science degree, but from the standoint of laboratory proficiency, they would not be permitted to graduate with a Bachelor's degree. The Doctor a Quimica degree should not be confused with the Doctor of Philosophy degree which is conferred in other parts of the world to students upon the production of mature scholarly works of real value. The title "doctor" is very commonplace in Argentina, and technically trained persons usually prefer to be known as "ingenieros." An unusual feature of the education system of Argentina is the most total nonexistence of student interchange between various universities. The institutions make no effort to evaluate the courses offered by other schools, and students seldom transfer from one university to another. Neither the ptofessors nor the students are well informed regarding chemical education in the country as a whole. Students have an inclination, just as in the United States, to regard the caliber of the work a t the school in which they are matriculated as superior to that offered elsewhere. In Argentina education has a decided tendency to be superficial. As a mark of education it is far more important that a person have the ability to discuss, in a general way, a wide assortment of topics than i t is to know enough about one subject to be able to put it to use. Consequently, the student is required to study many different subjects, and not infrequently finishes his university career with a very good education. But, on the other hand, i t is possible for the average student, due to the lax and indierent educational system, to pass through the entire gantlet of instruction without having had to do more than memorize a rather l i i t e d amount of knowledge sutliciently well to be able to repeat i t to his professors in a parrot-like manner. Discussions and criticisms of controversial topics are not encouraged. Although Argentina spends more on education than
any other Latin-American country, the universities are handicapped by lack of funds and poor administration. Budgets for equipment, supplies, and maintenance are inadequate, and philanthropic families of neither wealth nor industry are willing to bestow benevolence on the universities. Moreover it is doubtful if, under the prevailing university administration systems, grants of funds would be fundamentally helpful. Funds would probably be used entirely to expand the university rather than to improve scholarship or scientific research. University salaries are low, and only a few professors attempt to live entirely on their university earnings. It is usually necessary for them to divide their efforts between the universities and some other occupation. This situation is basically unfair to the students, the reputation of the university, and the professors. Instructors seldom have time available for consultations with students, nor do they have time to conduct research or otherwise pursue scholarly activities. The higher educational system in Argentina is fundamentally wrong, but it tends to be self-perpetuated because almost all the professors are themselves products of the system, and therefore they do not realize fully the limitations of the present organization. Because of potential or active political iduences, unattractive salaries, and slight opportunity for research, positions in the universities are not sought by foreign educators, and too few Argentinian professors have had an opportunity to study outside the country. Of those who have studied in foreign countries, few have remained a sufficient time to fulfill the requirements for a degree. This is unfortunate because the most important concept that can be returned to the chemical education of Argentina is a full realization of the importance of teaching chemistry as a creative science, a science which must be applied in order to be useful. Knowledge of the contributions of the world's outstanding chemists and the memorization of formulas, reactions, and properties of compounds are essential parts of the educational preparation of a chemist, but the utility of this acquired information is achieved only when a chemist goes to work; this usually means with his hands as well as with his head. Technical education in Argentina is prone to teach students to think as chemists, but it fails to teach the merits of being able to work as chemists. Education has been defmed as the enrichment of the mind and the enlargement of vision. If this definition is accepted, then chemical education in Argentina is on a rather high plane. However, training must be considered as an indispensable counterpart of chemical education, because education without training is instrumental in keeping knowledge out of circulation. In Argentina chemical education is fairly satisfactory, hut chemical training is poor.
