Chemical Russian, Self-Taught' I. Suggestions for Study Methods JAMES W. PERRY Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Continual increase i n the volume of chemical research published i n Russian confronts English-speaking c h e m i d with fhe probkm of acquiring a reading knowledge of chemical Russian wifhout undue expenditure of time and efort. The program of sfudy proposed reduces time spent on the grammar to a minimum while emphnsihg the advantages of an early 6eginning i n reading chemical Russian.
A
RECENT paper by E. J. Crane (1)indicates that after the war more chemical research will be reported in Russian than in any other language except English. The need for chemists to be able to read chemical Russian has developed to a critical point. Russian, however, has the reputation of being extremely difficult and complicated. Many chemists doubt their ability to learn to read Russian without spending an excessive amount of time attending classes. The possibility of learning to read chemical Russian by self-instruction during spare time is frequently overlooked. A direct, common-sense approach conserves much time and effort when learning to read any foreign language. Russian is no exception to that rule. This paper is based on the application of common sense to the problem of learning to read chemical Russian. The study methods presented in this paper have been used by the writer while learning to read several foreign languages during the past 15 years. RUSSIAN AND
ENGLISH-AComparison
solution soluble
solubility liquid (adj.) liquid (noun) work worker (male) worker (femsle)
visible invisible clean cleanliness
to be cleaning red reddish
The long words used in German do not have Russian counterparts. Instead, Russian uses phrases often quite similar to the corresponding English phrases. Massenwirkungsgesetz saxox aettcTqmmwx ~ a c c law of acting masses Halbwertszeit Bpem noaoBumoro pacnana time of half decomposition Stickstoffbindungsproblem
npo6ne~ac~naamoro aao~a In several important respects English and Russian problem of binding nitrogen are surprisingly similar. The word order in sentences SprengstoiTherstellung IIPOUBBOACTBO BSphIBTaTblX Bel4eCTB is frequently almost identical. Very often i t is unproduction of explosive materials necessary to shift the relative position of words in a Russian sentence in order to obtain a smooth English These examples may suffice to show that i t is untranslation. In this respect Russian presents far necessary to cultivate radically new habits of thought fewer difficulties to an English-speaking chemist than in order to acquire a feeling of easy familiarity with the German. It is not necessary to learn to think back- Russian methods of forming words and phrases. ward in order to become proficient in reading Russian. The main difficulties in learning to read Russian In general, the methods of word building are quite might be summarized as follows: similar in Russiar, and English. Prefixes and suffures I. Vocubulary. Most of the Russian mots bear are used in both languages to modify the meaning of little if any resemblance to their English counterparts. roots and to effect such changes as formation of verbs This means that considerable effort must be devoted to or adjectives from nouns. acquiring a good working vocabulary. The publication in the near future of a dictionam , (2) ~,emohasizine XMMMR chemistry XABIBK chemist chemical Russian terms should prove very helpful in xamqecxn& chemical (adj.) this connection. TennO warmth II. Grammar. Russian uses endings to a much Tennana hot-house greater extent than English. Nouns and noun modi' Presented before the Division of Chemical Education of the American Chemical Sdety, 107th meeting, Cleveland, Ohio. fiers are regularly used in six different cases in both singular and plural. A particularly difficult feature of April 4, 1944.
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the Russian grammar is the Russian verb, whose basic philosophy is likely to appear strange to an Englishspeaking person. However, i t is doubtful if any of these difficulties appears as formidable a t first as the Russian alphabet, to which attention is now directed. THE RUSSIAN ALPHABET
A ~ B ~ A E X ~ H B K J I M H O I I P C TXYI IQs I I 1 :a6 B ~ e Xm s n i f ~ M n H O p~ c ~ y x +q q m
Iq'bbIbBIOR a ( a b l s B H ) R
In spite of its exotic appearance, the Russian alphahet offers advantages which should not be overlooked. In the first place, Russian approaches the phonetic ideal very closely. In other words, each letter, as a general rule, represents only one sound. In rapid conversation, it is true, unaccented syllables are slurred, hut this is a matter of minor importance to those who are primarily interested in learning to read the language. The fundamentals of Russian pronunciation can be learned quite easily. This is a fortunate circumstance, as i t facilitates the use of the voice and the sense of hearing as powerful aids in impressing words, phrases, and idiomatic expressions on the memory. The help of a Russian-speaking friend facilitates learning the pronunciation. However, such help is not essential as an approximately correct pronunciation can serve quite effectively as an aid in learning to read chemical Russian. Another advantape of the Russian alnhahet is the efficiency with which it represents the hissing sounds and the so-called soft vowels which characterize the Slavic languages. The Russian alphahet overcomes the need for the specially marked letters which are used, for example, in Polish and Czech. The Russian alphabet has, in fact, only one serious disadvantage. To most Western Europeans-and Americansit gives an impression of mystery and bewilderment which discourages the study of the language. Aside from such psychological considerations, there is little reason why the Russian alphabet should act as a deterrent to learning the language. As a matter of fact, every English-speaking chemist can easily recognize many of the letters, about half of which resemble either Latin or Greek letters.
Pronunciation unlike English H E nasinnet B B v a s i n vent
The remainder of the Russian alphabet consists of seven special vowels, six letters representing hissing sounds and two letters used to indicate different modes of pronunciation. Soecial Vowels lT H ee as in sheet if y as in boy (Always used with another vowel) bI u a s in bulb (A poor approximation) 3 s e as in economy I0 H) yu BS in yule .R n va as in vard E e. or e yo as i n yonder Hissing Sounds mas in treasure 3 a z as in haze U q t s as in pats 9 s ch as incheck Ill m sh as in shop El m sb-ch as in cash-cheek when pronounced as one word
X
f~
Letters indicating different modes of pronunciation 'b a hard sign b b soft sign
A few letters not used a t present may be found in literature published before the revolution. Discarded Letters I i eeas in sheet 9 e f as in fast V v ee as in sheet 'B % ye as in yes
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Letters resembling Latin A a aasinfar E e yeasinyes -IC K k as in kettle M M m a s in stem
C c casincity T T t a s i n tall Y v ooasinboot Letters resembling Greek B 6 (beta) b a s in bench P r (gamma) g a s in go ,Q n (delta) d as in deep I1 n (pi) p as in pen P p (rho) r as in rose JI n (lambda) I as in bell 0 Q, (phi) f as in fast X x (chi) h a s in horse
Leaning the Russiun Alphabet. The key to acquiring familiarity with the Russian alphahet is plenty of pract'ce. Such practice can be combined with the first steps in reading chemical Russian. The periodic table
4; Be 6epannntt 9,02 12. Mg Marnuif 24.32 20. Ca %nsqnif 40,08 29. Cu Mens
63.57 38. Sr C~ponqm 87.63
affords oppoftnnity for practice in the alphabet while learning the ~ u s s & names of the chemical elements. The atomic symbols prevent any mistakes being made in learning the Russian names. This noint will become clear on considering Groups I and I1 of the periodic table copied from an elementmy inor~anic chemistry text (3),-(6). In addition to the periodic table an elementary inorganic text will contain various tables of the sort shown.
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exceptions to geheral rules, phrases having speaal meanings, etc., is best attained by continued practice in reading rather than by memorizing detailed rules of grammar. Noun Declensions. The suggested approach to the grammar can be illustrated by considering the subject of noun endings. The use which is made of such endings to convey thought is the essential thing. The following r&surn&summarizes the situation, aside from various idioms best learned separately. Cam Nominative Genitive
From the formulas, it is easy to deduce the Russian names of the various acids. The headings of other tables can be worked out partly by deduction and partly with the aid of a dictionary. It should be noted that an approximate knowledge of Russian pronunciation is very helpful in recognizing words of non-Russian origin relating to modern scientific concepts, e. g., TeMnepaTypa, temperature.
Us6 in Rvsrion Subject of sentence Envmerntion without sentence formation Indication of possession Alm (1) after certain nvmernlr
..
Dative
Accusative Inatrvmental
Repositional
~~~
(5) to i n d i i i i o b j s t of &aim verbs Indirect o b j s t of verbs Also (1) after certain prepa~itionn (2) to indicate object of certain verbr Direct object of most trensitiw verbs Also after certain preposition. To indicate means for accomplishing something Also (1) in predicate with verbs meaning "to be." "to remain,* "to become" (2) after certain prepositions (3) to indicate object of ccrtain verbs Only after certain prepositions, especially those indicating position.
RUSSIAN GRAMMAR-Gened ema arks
It will be observed that the various cases are used in Russian in much the same way as in German. Russian Once the alphabet is well in hand an attempt might be made to read text material by using a dictionary to noun inflection presents one quite unusual feature, the look up unknown words. If this is attempted diffi- instrumental case. Attention is directed to the use of culties will be encountered. For example, in the fol- this case, standing alone, to indicate the means whereby lowing passage, the word xncnoTa (acid) will be seen to something is accomplished. The Russian prepositional case presents no unusual difficulties. have four different endings.
This illustrates the important role of grammatical endings in the Russian language. Learning to read chemical Russian unavoidably involves obtaining a certain amount of grammar background. A word of caution may be helpful at this point. I t iszadvisable to avoid becoming a slave to the grammar. The attention should be directed to the forest, not to the trees. In other words, the essential thing is to get an insight into basic principles. Familiarity with details, such as irregular declensions and conjugations,
Insight into the role of noun endings in building thought patterns should be supplemented by sufficient knowledge of the endings to enable them to be recognized. Some may find it helpful to memorize arrays of the sort shown below. However, the important thing is to acquire a feeling for the endings by doing plenty of practice reading. The f a d that Russian sentences have nearly the same word order as English makes it much easier to become accustomed to the Russian noun endings than with the corresponding German inflections.
DECLENSION OF
A TYPICAL FEM~NZNE NOUN
Singular
Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Instrumental Prepositional
Plural
KncnoTa
KECJIOTM
XHCJIO~ XHCJIOTe
KEOJIOT
KBC~OTY KaOJIOTOP
KECnOTe
KUCJT0TB.M KEC~OTSI
KUCJ~OTBME
KUCJIOT~X
It should be noted that pronouns are inflected in Russian in a manner very similar to the nouns. Declension of Noun Modifiers. Adjectives and other noun modifiers, e. g., verb participles, carry endings which are required t o agree with themodified uouns with respect to gender, number, and case. Although not always identical with the comes~ondingnoun endings, the endings used with noun modifiers involve no fundamentally new points of view. While speaking of noun modifiers i t might be Well to mention that the definite and indefinite articles are lacking in Russian. Russian Verbs--General Remarks. In both Russian and English, a distinction is made between (1) an act which is in progress or incomplete or frequently repeated, and (2) an act which is thought of as finished or as a completed whole. For example, "I have been thinking" dire& attention to an act in progress, while "I had thought" suggests a completed act. A similar difference in meaning exists between "I will be thinking" and "I will have thought." Russian also distinguishes between an act in progress and an act considered as a whole. However, the grammar mechanism used is quite dissimilar from the English. Specifically, English uses auxiliary verbs to distinguish between incomplete and complete action, while Russian uses two slightly dierent, distinct verbs, one of which is said to be in the durative aspect (incomplete action) and the other in the perfect aspect (action thought of as a whole or as being completed). Frequently, though not always, the simple basic verb is in the durative aspect, from which the perfect aspect is formed by affixing a prefix. A typical example is the Russian verb pair, pyaran, ("to be thinking") and nomMam ("to have thought"). The situation is complicated somewhat by the fact that frequently prefixes do two things a t the same time, namely, modify the basic meaning of the root and also change the aspect from durative to perfect. This is the relationship between the Russian verbs, UYMETL ("to be thinking"), and the derived verb, samyxam ("to have invented"). By changing the last few letters of B b I p p a T b another verb, s u n y ~ u s ais ~ formed, ~, meaning "to be inventing." Russian Verbs-Formation of Tenses. The infinitives in Russian are the basis from which, as a rule, the other forms are derived. The past tense is formed with both durative and perfect infinitives in the same way. However, a present tense is formed only with the durative infinitive. This is logical, as an act in progress is of necessity incomplete. The endings, used with durative infinitives to form the present tense, indicate future action when used with perfect infinitives. The
future tense of the durative aspect is formed with the aid of an auxiliary. Other verb forms, such as participles, gerunds, etc., need cause no serious difficulties once the relationships outlined above have been mastered. It should be mentioned in this connection that certain verbs indicating motion, such as going, carrying, traveling, etc., involve additional complexities which cannot be discussed here because of space restrictions. RUSSIAN PHRASES AND IDIOMS
Russian, like any language, uses various special word combinations to express certain specific ideas. such idiomatic expressions are best learned as independent entities, although in many cases it may be possible to trace relationships between the idiom and the meaning words taken individually. the component Y arenn.. . . . . I have.. . . . M~eayxrno... I need . . . . . . . . Y ~ e 6 n... . . . Thou hast . Te6e nymo . . Thou needest. . -tr
e+r
Mne H P ~ B H T ~..... C~
I like.. . . . . . . . . . . . Te6e ~ p a s ~ ~ b. c. .n. . Thou likest. . . . . . . . etc.
Mne nyarno 6yne~...
Te6e q x a o 6yue~.. . Hn . . . . . . . na ....... H m ...... m a ......
I shall need. ....... Thou shalt need. . .
etc. Neither. .. .nor. . . . . . Either.. .. .or.. ......
Prepositional phrases require special treatment. This is due to the fact that attempting to find a single English preposition which can always be used to translate any one given Russian preposition is usually a hopeless task. The best approach is to learn the Russian prepositions in terms of mental images and thus avoid the need for translating into English in order to grasp the meaning. In some cases i t may be helpful to prepare diagrams indicating the action or situation expressed by the preposition.
C
Ha
(with genitive)
(with genitive) out of
B (with prepositional)
off of
Ha. . (with preposrttonal) a n surface of
inside
B
(withaccusative)
.w into
Ha
(with accusative) onto
Lack of space permits no more than mere mention of two peculiarities of the Russian language: (1) complete absence of any verb from some sentences, and (2) use of a double negative to indicate single negation. PRACTICE R E A D I N G - ~ W T Z ~ ~ ~ by
Doing
As already pointed out, learning the alphabet can be combined with starting to read words (e. g., the Russian
names of the elements) and phrases (e. g., the Russian for "specific weight"). I n order to make the most effective use of the time and effort devoted to learning to read Russian, i t is essential to read as much as possible from the very start, even though a t f i s t incomplete knowledge of the grammar may prevent a clear understanding of all except the simplest phrases and sentences. The meagerness of such accomplishment is much less important than the fact that direct contact is being established-wen though imperfectly a t first-with the language in its living form. After reading over an elementary grammar (4, 5) and preparing a rough outline the grammar should be used as a consultant to overcome difficulties. At no stage should the grammar be allowed to monopolize the attention. Using the grammar as an aid rather than carrying it as a burden is a most important matter. By devoting most of the time to practice reading i t is possible to amve a t the point where the grammar is relegated to the background, where its presence is unnoticed during reading, except as a guide in untangling difficult passages. This highly desirable relationship to the grammar can be achieved only by continued practice in reading material whose subjectmatter is already known. A knowledge of the subject matter is, in fact, the key to starting. " reading. " chemical Russian before the mammar has been mastered thoroughly. By knowing in advance what is going to be said the chances of mis0
interpreting the Russian are greatly reduced, if not entirely precluded. Examples to illustrate this point are given below. In these examples an attempt has been made to distinguish between that part of the meaning inherent in the root words and that part of the meaning conveyed by the various inflections. Frequently, when reading known subject matter, the meaning of the root words serves as a guide in interpreting that part of the meaning which in Russian is conveyed by inflections or by idioms. For these reasons an elementary inorganic text is an invaluable aid in learning to read chemical Russian. I t will also be noted that reading an elementary chemistry text offersexcellent opportunity for becoming familiar with Russian chemical terms. By listing such terms on slips of paper or cards a homemade glossary of Russian chemical teims can be compiled. Such a glossary affordsvaluable aid to the memory during the learning process. To supplement the practice in reading an inorganic text it may prove helpful to subscribe to a Russianlanguage newspaper (7). Since the same news is reported as in English-language newspapers, the chances of misinterpreting the Russian news accounts are minimized. Based on these considerations, the following program of study is suggested:
Russian
Pemqum M e w KanbqueM u nonoa MOXUO uso6paaurs T B K sons ~ a n s q n t t+ n a ~ e c ~ b B O ~ O P O X English The reaction between calcium and water may be represented t h u s water calcium -+ lime hydrogen S t e e i s e translation PeaK~a~, MeXW
+
+
+
+
Reaction (Noun, feminine, accusative singular)
between (Prepmition)
BOXO*
KanbqEleM
H
caieivm (Noun, masculine, instrumental singular)
and (Conjunction)
u306pa3n~b
MOXHO
water (Noun. feminine, instrumental Pingulad
(it is) possible (Adverbial verb)
to represent (Verb, perfect, infinithe)
(Cf. equation above)
English Sulfurous acid is a good reducing agent. Stepwire translation C~~EECTU KUC3rOTa Sulfurous (Adjective, feminine, nominative sinpuiar)
acid femine, nominat w e Pingular)
(Noun,
RBXXeIeTCR
Russian G e c n e e ~ u b ~lpoc@op # xopomo pacmopnewn B oepoyrnepoue, CSn. English White phospboms is easily soluble in carbon disuliide, C%. Stepwise trenslalim rbocrbop xopomo Eecq~e~nb~B Coiorlers (Adjective, masculine, nomioatiwe singular)
phosphorous (Noun, m a r d i n e , nominatrve singular)
X O ~ O ~ E X
shows itself (Verb, durative aspect, present tense, third person singular)
well (Adverb)
good
(Adjective, masculine, instrumental singular)
pacTaopneTen
dirsolvea itself (Verb,reflerive,durativeanpect, p n s m t tense, third person singular)
a in (Preposition)
BOCCTaHOBHTeJEM reducing agmf (Noun.ma.culine.instrumental riogularl
cepoyrnepone, CSs. carbon disulBde. CS. (Noun, masculine, prepozitional Gngular)
1. Learn the alphabet by practice with the Russian names of To up the whole matter, thinking Russian is the the chemical elements. quickest and surest way to learn Russian. 2. Read through an elementary Russian grammar (4.5) makIf difficulty is experienced in reading Russian without ing an outline of the main points for future reference. the followi~gprocedure may help. After 3. After learning the alphabet start reading an elementary -slating, inorganic chemistry text in Russian, using the grammar as needed working out a section of text, with translation into t o aid in clearing up difficult passages. English when necessary, lay the text aside for a day or 4. Combine reading the elementary inorganic text with the so and then try to read the Russian directly, making a two following things: compilation f, a homemade glossaryof chemical ~ ~ ~ conscious ~ i a n&ort to avoid the natural tendency to think in English. A certain amount of persistence may be tetms and phrases. b. Extension of the rough outline of the grammar t o include reanired to master the trick. At first. -~ it mav be nose-~ ~- ~ r - - -, grammar details encountered during reading. ble to understand only the simplest phrases and 5. After working through the elementary inorganic text start sentences without translation; with practice, however, reading current Russian chemical journals.
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even the most complicated text can be read at sight.
WADING WITHOUT
TRANSLATING
TIME REQUIRED
Time is conserved in learning to read chemical Russian if the study periods are short and frequent. I t is much easier to absorb Russian in small doses than to swallow it in large gulps. In fact, learning to read chemical Russian might be compared to a process of slow osmosis. It is necessary, from time to time, to suppress the feeling that the task is hopelessly difficult. Fortunately, the Russian language is not infinitely complex, though it may appear so at times. There are a finite number of difficulties to be worked out one by one. With patience and persistence any English-speaking chemist can learn to read chemical Russian during spare time. By keeping at it for about a year, assuming an average of about an hour a day, it is possible to acquire the necessary grammar background and to work through an elementary inorganic chemistry text in Russian. Once that has been done and a homemade glossary of Russian chemical terms has been compiled, current Russian chemical journ$s can be tackled with gratifying results.
Discussion of the problem of learning to read chemical Russian with friends has convinced the writer that it might be well to point out the advantages of learning to read chemical Russian directly, i. e., without translating into English. At fist, it is true, the unknown, Russian, must be understood in terms of the known, English. However, once a Russian word or phrase is understood there are advantages in cultivating the habit of understanding the Russian directly. Reading the Russian directly keeps the attention focused on the Russian rather than allowing it to wander off to English. Obviously it is a waste of time to think more than a minimum amount of English when reading Russian. By thinking Russian while reading it the process of anchoring the language in the memory is facilitated and also accelerated. Furthermore, reading without translation establishes direct contact with the language and this in turn gradually imparts an insight into shades of meaning and coloring which can scarcely be attained otherwise. The scope of meaning and the usage of English and Russian words are often not the same. For example, ACKNOWLEDGMENT the English word "revolution" is translated as " p e ~ o ~ Thanks are due Mr. Serge Zaroodny for numerous mrmn" when political or social upheaval is meant, but by #' valuable suggestions. spamenae" to indicate m e ~ h a n i d rotation. The Russian word, "s~pymm.," can often be translated by LITERATURE CITED "to have invented" or "to have devised," but the basic (1) CRANE,"The growth of chemical literature in various parts meaning is, perhaps, nearer to the English "to have of the world and the effects of war thereon." Paper presented before the Division of Chemical Education of the thought up." For example, " s h ~ p y ~ amay ~ ~ " be used American Chemical Society, 107th meeting, Cleveland, in Russian to indicate the mental activity involved in Ohio, April 4, 1944. writing fiction. Obviously, there is no exact, single (2) CALLAHAN, "Russian-English Technical and Chemical Dictionary," John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York, puhlicaequivalent to "BHJJ~MILTE." in the English language. tion pending. It is very difficult to become familiar with fine (3) VERKHOVSK~~, ''Inorgmic Chemistry-A Text for Iutermedishades of meaning unless one learns to connect Russian ate Schools," Uchpedgis, Leningrad, 1940. Simplified Russian Method," revised by L. Segal, words directly with objects, concepts, actions, and (4) "Bondar's Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, undated. emotions rather than with English words. Another (5) SEMEONOPP, "A New Russian Grammar," E. P. Dutton and Company. New York, 1943. advantage of the habit of thinking in Russian, while "General Inorganic Chemistry," Ogis, Leninreading it, is the fact that it lays the groundwork for (6) MENSHUTKIN, grad, 1931. learning to speak Russian, if ever the need should arise. (7) Russky Golos. 130 East 16th Street, New York City.
