Clean Energy from Waste and Coal - ACS Publications - American

Chapter 16

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Trace Metal Analysis of Fly Ash from Combustion of Densified Refuse-Derived Fuel and Coal Bassam S. Attili, Kevin D. Ingram, Chia-Hui Tai, and Kenneth E. Daugherty Department of Chemistry, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203

Analysis of the trace metals i n fly ash produced from the combustion of quicklime binder enhanced densified refuse derived fuel (bdRDF) with coal i s discussed. In 1987 a f u l l - s c a l e c o f i r i n g of bdRDF and high s u l f u r coal was conducted at Argonne National Laboratories. About 567 tons of bdRDF p e l l e t s were c o f i r e d with coal at 0 t o 50 percent bdRDF by Btu content and 0, 4, and 8 percent binder. Analysis has continued on the samples acquired at Argonne. The fly ash was dissolved i n a mixture of aqua-regia and hydrofluoric acid i n a Parr bomb using a microwave d i s s o l u t i o n method . The solution was then analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) f o r As, Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Τl, V, and Zn. Results indicated that some trace elements decreased i nflyash with the increase i n dRDF percentage while others increased. The disposal of refuse i s an increasing concern of m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and state governments throughout the U.S. Ten years ago there were approximately 10,000 sanitary l a n d f i l l s i n the country. Currently there are less than 5,000. By the year 2000, many e x i s t i n g l a n d f i l l s w i l l become f i l l e d to capacity, and new l a n d f i l l s w i l l be more c o s t l y t o s i t e (1-3). The NIMBY syndrome, or Not IN My Back Yard, dominates peoples minds when i t comes to s i t i n g new l a n d f i l l s . The development of an a t t r a c t i v e disposal method i s c r i t i c a l to overcome these problems. There are three ways t o dispose of Municipal S o l i d

0097-6156/93/0515-0199$06.00/0 © 1993 American Chemical Society In Clean Energy from Waste and Coal; Khan, M.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1992.


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Waste (MSW) . I t can be l a n d f i l l e d , dumped a t sea o r burned. I n c i n e r a t i o n i s the major p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n t o the l a n d f i l l problem (4-6). The c o n v e n t i o n a l way t o conduct i n c i n e r a t i o n o f MSW i s c a l l e d mass burn, i n which the e n t i r e incoming garbage stream i s run through a h i g h temperature k i l n . There are s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l problems with mass burn. Since a l l o f the m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e i n the garbage stream are i n c i n e r a t e d , t h e r e a r e h i g h l e v e l s of metals i n the ash. Because o f the nature o f the m a t e r i a l s , t h e r e are a l s o high l e v e l s o f r e s i d u a l ash which can be up t o 25 percent by weight and up t o 10 percent by volume of the incoming MSW (5) . A l s o , t h e r e are concerns about a i r emissions i f the k i l n temperatures are not kept a t proper l e v e l s . An i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t r a c t i v e o p t i o n i s t o separate the metals, aluminum, high d e n s i t y p l a s t i c , corrugated cardboard and g l a s s from the incoming MSW so t h a t they can be r e c y c l e d . Then any remaining non-combustible m a t e r i a l s are separated from the combustible m a t e r i a l s t h a t remain. These remaining combustible m a t e r i a l s (approximately 50% of the MSW by weight) c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y o f paper. T h i s can be ground and turned i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e energy source c a l l e d Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) which can then be cof i r e d with c o a l . There i s o b v i o u s l y a need t o d e n s i f y the m a t e r i a l so t h a t i t can be t r a n s p o r t e d t o end u s e r s . A l s o , i n order t o reduce any chemical and b i o l o g i c a l degradation t h a t might occur d u r i n g storage, a b i n d e r m a t e r i a l might need t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d e n s i f i e d material. Approximately 150 p o t e n t i a l b i n d e r s were t e s t e d a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f North Texas (UNT) , t o be used as b i n d i n g agents with RDF. T h i s i n i t i a l study took i n t o account the c o s t and environmental a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f these m a t e r i a l s t o determine the best candidates t o be used i n p e l l e t i n g trials. A commercial t e s t o f p e l l e t i z i n g RDF was conducted a t J a c k s o n v i l l e , F l o r i d a , Naval A i r S t a t i o n i n the summer o f 1985 with the b i n d e r candidates t h a t were i d e n t i f i e d e a r l i e r . D u r a b i l i t y t e s t s along with a n a l y s i s of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the binder t o impede degradation were conducted. The r e s u l t s of the t e s t proved t h a t q u i c k l i m e (Ca(OH) ) i s the best b i n d e r . The m a t e r i a l was then ready f o r f u l l s c a l e p l a n t demonstration. T h i s c o f i r i n g o f RDF with c o a l was conducted a t Argonne N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r i e s (ANL) i n the summer o f 1987 and i n v o l v e d the combustion o f over f i v e hundred tons of the b i n d e r enhanced dRDF with a h i g h s u l f u r c o a l over a s i x week p e r i o d . Over 1500 emission samples were c o l l e c t e d from the combustion t e s t and i n c l u d e d f l u e gas emissions, f l y ash, bottom ash, and feed stock samples. There are two types o f ash t h a t r e s u l t due the combustion o f any m a t e r i a l . F l y ash c o n s i s t s o f f i n e 2

In Clean Energy from Waste and Coal; Khan, M.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1992.


16.

ATTILI ET AL.

Trace Metals in Fly Ash from bdRDF & Coal Combustion 201

p a r t i c u l a t e matter t h a t escapes i n the f l u e gas. It is c o l l e c t e d by e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s or baghouses, although approximately 1-2 percent of f l y ash does escape t o the atmosphere (3) even with the p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l devices on-line. There i s a l s o bottom ash which i s a courser m a t e r i a l t h a t drops through the g r a t e s i n the furnace. F l y ash i s the major by-product of burning MSW (7,8). There are about 35,000 tons of f l y ash produced f o r each m i l l i o n ton of waste i n c i n e r a t e d (9,10). Fly ash c o n s i s t s of 70-95% i n o r g a n i c matter and 5-30% o r g a n i c s (3) . There are many c o n s t r u c t i v e ways t o use f l y ash, i n c l u d i n g as an a d d i t i v e t o improve the performance of P o r t l a n d cement and as a s o i l s t a b i l i z e r (11). Since f l y ash is the major by-product of i n c i n e r a t i o n and i n c i n e r a t i o n i s the main a t t r a c t i v e solution to landfills the physical and chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f l y ash i s important i n determining i t s method of d i s p o s a l or use (12). Trace metals are important because of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e g u l a t o r y c r i t e r i a under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) r e g a r d i n g t o x i c i t y (13). Trace metals p l a y a major r o l e i n whether a f l y ash i s hazardous and i s disposed of or i f i t can be used i n a p r o d u c t i v e way. The most t o x i c elements of concern i n ash are a r s e n i c , barium, b e r y l l i u m , cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, n i c k e l , lead, antimony, selenium, thallium, vanadium and z i n c . I n d u c t i v e l y Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES), was s e l e c t e d over other methods f o r determining these t o x i c elements because of the t r a c e nature of the elements i n v o l v e d , the need f o r q u a n t i t a t i o n and the a b i l i t y t o determine a l l of the elements i n the samples s e q u e n t i a l l y . A microwave oven d i s s o l u t i o n method was used t o dissolve the ash i n a mixture of aqua-regia and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d u s i n g a P a r r bomb. The s o l u t i o n was then analyzed by ICP. Methodology F u e l P r e p a r a t i o n . The b i n d e r enhanced dRDF p e l l e t s f o r the 1987 ANL study were s u p p l i e d by two f a c i l i t i e s , one a 40 ton per day p l a n t l o c a t e d a t T h i e f R i v e r F a l l s , Minnesota (Future Fuel Inc.) and the other a 470 ton per day p l a n t a t Eden P r a i r i e , Minnesota (Reuter I n c . ) . The dRDF was made with 0, 4, and 8 percent CafOHK b i n d e r . Before each t e s t run, dRDF p e l l e t s and c o a l were blended together u s i n g a front-end l o a d e r u n t i l the m a t e r i a l appeared approximately homogenous. Due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n bulk d e n s i t i e s and energy v a l u e s of the m a t e r i a l s , t o produce a blend c l o s e t o 10 percent dRDF by Btu content i t takes a mixture of t h r e e volumes of a h i g h -


202



s u l f u r Kentucky c o a l and one volume o f dRDF . The blend was moved by front-end loader t o the c o a l p i t and t r a n s p o r t e d by conveyor t o c o a l bunker p r i o r t o use i n the ANL s t o k e r f i r e d b o i l e r . Nine tons per hour o f the f u e l mixture on average were burned. Sampling Plan. A t o t a l of 567 tons of dRDF p e l l e t s were c o f i r e d with 2,041 tons of s u l f u r - r i c h c o a l i n 12 separate t e s t runs. The runs were c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o the d i f f e r e n t Btu contents of dRDF i n the f u e l and d i f f e r e n t b i n d e r content o f dRDF (Table I) . Runs 1 and 12 used c o a l alone i n order t o e s t a b l i s h base l i n e data. To a v o i d cross-contamination between the d i f f e r e n t runs, c o a l only runs were a l s o performed between the other runs t o cleanout the dRDF from the c o a l p i t and t o reduce any memory e f f e c t s t h a t might occur i n the b o i l e r due t o the i n c l u s i o n of the calcium binder from p r e v i o u s runs. Sample C o l l e c t i o n . Over 1,500 samples o f f l u e gas emissions, f l y ash, bottom ash, and feedstock were c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g the 12 runs. A t o t a l o f 190 bottom ash samples were c o l l e c t e d from under the g r a t e and through the t r a v e l i n g g r a t e i n the b o i l e r . A t o t a l o f 176 f l y ash samples were c o l l e c t e d from the m u l t i - c y c l o n e and from the economizer. Random ash samples were taken every e i g h t hours. The samples were c o l l e c t e d e i t h e r by one o f the UNT r e s e a r c h teams o r one of the ANL operators a t the r e q u i r e d times. Aluminum c o n t a i n e r s were used t o c o l l e c t the ash samples. A f t e r the samples c o o l e d they were t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o z i p l o c k bags which were then l a b e l e d with the date, run number, and the time the sample was collected. The ash samples were then packed and t r a n s p o r t e d t o UNT where they were arranged a c c o r d i n g t o the run number, date, and time of c o l l e c t i o n . Equipment Parr Bombs. Parr T e f l o n a c i d bombs were obtained from Parr Instrument Company. The bomb i s made o f a microwave t r a n s p a r e n t polymer. A compression r e l i e f d i s c i s b u i l t i n t o the c l o s u r e t o r e l e a s e e x c e s s i v e pressure i f the bomb reaches an i n t e r n a l pressure o f over 1500 p s i . In most cases a l l p a r t s of the bomb were reusable except f o r the 0-ring. Microwave Oven. Microwave digestion i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y accepted as a f a s t and r e l i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o the t r a d i t i o n a l hot p l a t e method f o r the d i g e s t i o n of samples before elemental a n a l y s i s . A Kenmore commercial microwave oven was used t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s work. The oven has a v a r i a b l e t i m i n g c y c l e from 1 second t o 100 minutes


16. ATTILI ET Al*



Table I . Coal/dRDF Test Run Schedule Run #

Date

Composition

%Binder xxxxx

1

1-5 June

Coal

2

5-8 June

Coal, 10% dRDF

0

3

8-12 June

Coal, 10% dRDF

4

4

12-15 June

Coal, 10% dRDF

8

1

15-18 June

Coal

5

18-23 June

Coal, 20% dRDF

0

7

23 June

Coal, 20% dRDF

4

6

23-26 June

Coal, 30% dRDF

8

7

26-28 June

Coal, 20% dRDF

4

8

28 June-1 J u l y

Coal, 20% dRDF

8

12

1-4 J u l y

Coal

11

4-5 J u l y

Coal, 50% dRDF

12

5-6 J u l y

Coal

6-7 J u l y

Coal, 30% dRDF

0

10

7-8 J u l y

Coal, 30% dRDF

4

12

8 July

Coal

*

9 *

xxxxx

xxxxx 4 xxxxx

xxxxx

* reduced p l a s t i c content dRDF p e l l e t s


204

CLEAN ENERGY FROM WASTE AND COAL 1


and a v a r i a b l e h e a t i n g c y c l e based on i t s power s e t t i n g s from 70 watts through 700 watts a t f u l l power. I n d u c t i v e l y Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ICP-AES. A Perkin-Elmer ICP-5500 Atomic Emission Spectrometer with a 27.12-MHz RF generator was used i n this analysis. The performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ICP, namely i t s v e r s a t i l i t y , wide Appl.icability, and ease of use are almost u n p a r a l l e l e d among other methods of elemental analyses (14). ICP i s theoretically capable of determining any element i n the sample matrix except argon, which i s used t o form the plasma (15). The Appl.ication of ICP t o simultaneous determination of major, minor, and t r a c e l e v e l elements i n v a r i o u s matrices has been w e l l documented (16-19). ICP o f f e r s s e v e r a l advantages as an a l t e r n a t i v e approach f o r the a n a l y s i s of geochemical and environmental samples (2024). ICP permits the determination of a l a r g e number of elements with h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y and p r e c i s i o n and with r e l a t i v e freedom from chemical i n t e r f e r e n c e s (25-27). Sample A n a l y s i s A f t e r the samples were returned t o the l a b o r a t o r y , they were arranged a c c o r d i n g t o the dates and times they were c o l l e c t e d . To determine the t r a c e metal content of each sample, about 10 grams of the ash was ground t o pass a 75 mesh s i e v e . A 400 mg sample was p l a c e d i n a t e f l o n c o n t a i n e r and t r e a t e d with 1 mL of h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d and 3 mL of aqua r e g i a . The t e f l o n c o n t a i n e r was then p l a c e d i n the P a r r bomb and the bomb was t i g h t l y capped. The bomb was p l a c e d i n the microwave oven and heated f o r 4 minutes and l e f t f o r s e v e r a l hours t o c o o l . A f t e r c o o l i n g , the t e f l o n c o n t a i n e r was uncapped and 2 mL of s a t u r a t e d b o r i c a c i d was q u i c k l y added. The c o n t a i n e r was then recapped, returned t o the microwave oven and reheated f o r 1 minute, then cooled again (28-30). At t h i s stage some uncombusted carbon remained, so the s o l u t i o n was f i l t e r e d t o remove the r e s i d u e . The r e s i d u e was washed with d e i o n i z e d water and the f i l t r a t e was d i l u t e d t o 50 mL i n a p o l y e t h y l e n e v o l u m e t r i c f l a s k . The s o l u t i o n was f i n a l l y analyzed by ICP u s i n g a blank and a standard s o l u t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g the same amounts of a c i d s . Standards with v a r i e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of As, Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, N i , Pb, Sb, Se, ΤΙ, V, and Zn were used f o r the a n a l y s i s . R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n The chemical composition of the c o a l and dRDF ash depends on many f a c t o r s . The g e o l o g i c a l and geographic f a c t o r s


16.

ATTILI ET AL.



r e l a t e d t o the c o a l d e p o s i t s have a major e f f e c t on the initial composition of the fuelstock. Also, the combustion temperatures, residence time i n the combustion zone and a i r flow r a t e i n the b o i l e r along with the e f f i c i e n c y of a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l d e v i c e s have an e f f e c t on the elements present i n the f l y ash. The f l y ash samples which were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s study by ICP were the from the economizer which comes a f t e r the m u l t i c y c l o n e i n the p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l system. The r e s u l t s from t h i s study are summarized i n Table I I . Fourteen metals were analyzed i n t h i s study. They were a r s e n i c , barium, b e r y l l i u m , cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, n i c k e l , l e a d , antimony, selenium, t h a l l i u m , vanadium, and z i n c . The metals a r s e n i c , cadmium, mercury, l e a d , antimony, selenium and t h a l l i u m are not i n c l u d e d i n these r e s u l t s because t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were too low t o be detected by ICP. Table I I I summarizes the ICP d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s under the c o n d i t i o n s of t h i s study of a l l of the elements examined. E f f e c t of dRDF content on t r a c e metals. The p r o c e s s i n g of MSW t o RDF removes much of the unwanted t r a c e metals s i n c e many of the metal c o n t a i n i n g p i e c e s of waste are separated before i n c i n e r a t i o n t o be r e c y c l e d . The metal content of the c o a l and RDF blend ash i s expected t o be a f f e c t e d by the d i f f e r e n t percentages of RDF. Elements such as barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, l e a d and z i n c are known t o be enriched i n RDF r e l a t e d t o c o a l . However, the l e v e l s of cadmium, mercury and l e a d observed were below d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s f o r a l l of the c o a l and bdRDF mixes examined i n t h i s study. Table I I and F i g u r e s 1-7 show the amount of each metal i n the f l y ash. Each f i g u r e i l l u s t r a t e s the v a r i a n c e of the l e v e l of the given metal based upon the percent replacement by Btu content of RDF f o r c o a l and upon the percent binder used i n c o n j u n c t i o n with the bdRDF. The graphs show an i n c r e a s e i n copper and z i n c c o n c e n t r a t i o n with an i n c r e a s e i n bdRDF c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Since these elements are g e n e r a l l y higher i n RDF, this was expected. The elements barium and chromium v a r i e d g r e a t l y but showed a general i n c r e a s e with an i n c r e a s e i n bdRDF c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t d i f f e r e n t b i n d e r percentages. These i n c r e a s e s are a l s o due t o these elements being more e n r i c h e d i n RDF ash than i n c o a l ash. The elements vanadium, beryllium and nickel g e n e r a l l y were decreased i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n with an i n c r e a s e i n bdRDF percentage. Those elements are b e l i e v e d t o be a t approximately the same c o n c e n t r a t i o n or s l i g h t l y lower i n RDF than c o a l . Obviously the amount of a l l of these metals w i l l d e v i a t e as t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s vary i n the incoming waste



206

Table I I . Summary o f T o x i c Metals C o n c e n t r a t i o n i n Economizer F l y Ash (ug/g)


Run* Ba

Be

Cr

Cu

Ni

V

Zn

Btu% Binder dRDF %

1.

158. 2 25. 3 105. 2 152. 7 130. 0 223. 4

324.8

0

-

2.

240. 1 27. 7 111. 3 199. 5 135. 3 234. 1

338.5

10

0

3.

202. 2 19. 6 100. 3 151. 8 122. 2 177. 9

293.7

10

4

4.

144. 4 14. 7

94. 9 143. 7 100. 8 160. 7

390.8

10

8

5.

227. 7 20. 2 143. 8 243. 4 137. 4 231. 0

404.6

20

0

6.

155. 7 11. 3 108. 3 208. 5 149. 0 187. 1

478.2

20

4

7.

182. 8 13. 3 127. 6 243. 6 121. 3 193. 4

466.7

20

8

8.

160. 1 11. 4 114. 4 360. 6

92. 7 181. 3

443.6

30

0

9.

158. 3 10. 5 115. 9 207. 9

75. 6 149. 6

455.9

30

4

10.

190. 2 10. 5 112. 2 227. 6 130. 5 161. 3

470.8

30

8

11.

228. 5 14. 9 126. 1 353. 5

97. 7 179. 8

372.1

50

4

12.

177. 4 16. 6

97. 8 171. 6

240.3

0

93. 5 217. 1

Table I I I . D e t e c t i o n L i m i t s o f ICP (ug/g) D e t e c t i o n L i m i t s o f ICP (ug/g) As Ba Be Cd Cr Cu Hg Ni Pb Sb Se Tl Zn

62.50 12.50 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 125.00 12.50 125.00 125.00 62.50 125.00 6.25


—


ATTILI ET AL.

250


200

10

20

30

%RDF by Btu Replacement • i

Figure 1.

0% binder

•

4% binder

•

8% binder

Barium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

0

10

20

i n the f l y ash.

30

50

%RDF by Btu Replacement H

Figure 2 ,

0% binder

4% binder

EZU 8% binder

Beryllium concentrations

10

20

i n the f l y ash.

30

%RDF by Btu Replacement • •

Figure 3.

0% binder

β!

4% binder

8% binder

Chromium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e f l y ash.


208



ppm

0

10

%RDF WM 0% binder

Figure 4.

20

30

50

by Btu Replacement 4% binder

EZ3 8% binder

Copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

i n t h e f l y ash.




ATTILI ET AL.

100 -|

0

10

%RDF •I

Figure 6.

0% binder

20

30

by Btu Replacement β!

4% binder

CZH 8% binder

Vanadium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

i n the f l y ash.

500

0

10

%RDF WM

Figure 7.

0% binder

20

30

by Btu Replacement 8β

4% binder

Zinc c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

EZ]

8% binder

i n the f l y ash.




210

stream. Care has t o be taken i n the p r o c e s s i n g of the MSW t o remove a l l of the p o s s i b l e contaminants. However, the p r o d u c t i o n o f RDF i s very dependent upon what i n d i v i d u a l s throw away as garbage. The most promising aspect of t h i s study i s t h a t the metal emissions vary l i t t l e from t h a t o f c o a l burned alone. Only copper showed a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n i t s presence i n the f l y ash. As r e c y c l i n g g a i n s p o p u l a r i t y i n t h i s country, the amount of copper i n the c o u n t r i e s waste streams should decrease and i n t u r n h e l p decrease the amount of copper i n the f l y ash of the combustion of refuse derived f u e l . However, i t should be r e i t e r a t e d t h a t nothing i n t h i s study i n d i c a t e s t h a t the ash from the combustion o f r e f u s e d e r i v e d f u e l must be l a n d f i l l e d as a hazardous waste and not used i n p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . Conclusion The binder-enhanced dRDF i s a promising technique f o r the f u t u r e t o be used as f u e l or as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r c o a l . I t i s an economical way of d i s p o s a l of MSW i n the sense t h a t i t reduces the heavy c o s t of l a n d f i l l i n g , and t h i s technique generates e x t r a income i f s o l d as fuel. According t o the r e s u l t s presented here i t shows promise i n reducing emissions, e s p e c i a l l y the t r a c e heavy metals emissions, which a l s o makes i t s a f e r t o use the f l y ash on a l a r g e s c a l e , including f o r many c o n s t r u c t i o n projects. L i t e r a t u r e Cited 1. Ohlsson, O., presentation at Resource Recovery f o r Small Communities i n Panama City, F l o r i d a , 1988. 2. Ohlsson, Ο., Daugherty, K.E., presentation at A i r and Waste Management Association Forum 90 i n Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1990. 3. Attili, B.S., Daugherty, K.E., Kester, A.S., Shanghai International Conference on the U t i l i z a t i o n of F l y Ash and Other Coal Products, 1991, pp. 18.1-18.12. 4. Daugherty, Κ. Ε., Phase 1, F i n a l Report; U.S. Department of Energy, ANL/CNSV-TM-194, 1988. 5. Rogoff, M.J., Noyes Publications: Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1987, pp. 39-45. 6. Gershman, Brickner, and Bratton, Inc., "Small-Scale Municipal S o l i d Waste Energy Recovery Systems", Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, NY., 1986, pp. 4-20. 7. Eiceman, G.A., Clement, R.E., Karasek, F.W., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1979, 51, pp. 2343-2350. 8. Karasek, F.W., Gharbonneau, G.M., Revel, G.J., Tong, H.Y., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1987, 59, pp. 1027-1031. 9. Huheey, James Ε., Inorganic Chemistry, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, Third E d i t i o n , 1983, pp. 851936.



16. ATTILI ET AL.


10. Roy, W.R., Thiery, R.G., Schuller, R.M., Environmental Geology Notes 96, State Geological Survey D i v i s i o n , A p r i l , 1981. 11. Hecht, Ν., "Design P r i n c i p l e s i n Resource Recovery Engineering", Butterworth Publishers: Boston, 1983, pp. 23-33. 12. Poslusny, Μ., Daugherty, Κ., Moore, P., American I n s t i t u t e of Chemical Engineers Symposium Series, 1988, 265, pp. 94-106. 13. A t t i l i , B. S., Ph.D. Dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, 1991. 14. McLaren, J.W.,Berman, S.S., Boyko, V.J., Russel, D.S., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1981, 53, pp. 1802-1806. 15. Tikkanen, M.W., Neimczyk, T.M., Analytical Chemistry, 1986, 52, pp. 366-370. 16. Nygaard, D.D., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1979, 51, pp. 881-884. 17. Ward, A.F., Marciello, L.F., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1979, 51, pp. 2264-2272. 18. McQuaker, N.R., Brown, P.D., Chany, G.N., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1979, 51, pp. 888-895. 19. Nadkarni, R.A., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1980, 52, pp. 929-935. 20. Fassel, V.A., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1979, 51, pp. 1290A-1308A. 21. Bennet, Η., Analyst, 1977, 102, pp. 153-158. 22. Greenfield, S., Jones, I.L., McGreachin, H.M., Smith, P.B., Analytica Chimica Acta, 1975, 74, pp. 225245. 23. Robinson, Α., Science, 1978, 199, p. 1324-1329. 24. Uchida, H., Uchida, T., Iida, C., A n a l y t i c a l Chimica Acta, 1979, 108, pp. 87-95. 25. Cox, X.B., Bryan, S.R., Linton, R.W., Analytical Chemistry, 1987, 59, pp. 2018-2023. 26. Sugimae, Α., Barnes, R., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1986, 58, pp. 785-789. 27. Beckwith, P.M., Mullins, R.L., Coleman, D.M., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1987, 59, pp. 163-167. 28. Nadkarni, R. Α., A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, 1984, 56, pp. 2233-2237. 29. B e t t i n e l l i , Μ., Baroni, U., P a s t o r e l l i , Ν., Journal of A n a l y t i c a l Atomic Spectroscopy, 1987, pp. 485-490. 30. ASTM standard method 200.7 ICP/AES. RECEIVED October 1, 1992


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