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Cloud Point Extraction of Plutonium in Environmental Matrices Coupled to ICP-MS and Alpha Spectrometry in Highly Acidic Conditions Charles Labrecque, Laurence Whitty-Léveillé, and Dominic Larivière Anal. Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ac402649v • Publication Date (Web): 30 Sep 2013 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 6, 2013
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Analytical Chemistry
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Cloud Point Extraction of Plutonium in Environmental Matrices Coupled to ICP-
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MS and Alpha Spectrometry in Highly Acidic Conditions
3
Charles Labrecque, Laurence Whitty-Léveillé and Dominic Larivière†
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1. Laboratoire de radioécologie, Département de chimie, Université Laval, 1045
5
Avenue de la Médecine, Québec, QC, Canada, G1V 0A6
6 7 8 9
†
To whom correspondence should be addressed:
10
Dominic Larivière
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Département de chimie, Faculté des sciences et de génie
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Université Laval
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1045, avenue de la Médecine, Bureau 1250D
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Pavillon Alexandre-Vachon
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Québec, Qc, Canada
16
G1V 0A6
17 18
Téléphone: 418-656-7250
19
Télécopieur : 418-656-7916
20
E-mail:
[email protected] 21 22
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Abstract
24
A new cloud point extraction procedure has been developed for the quantification) of
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plutonium (IV) in environmental samples. The separation procedure can be either
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coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or alpha
27
spectrometry for plutonium quantification. The method uses a combination of
28
selective ligand (P,P di-(2-ethylhexyl) methanediphosphonic acid (H2DEH[MDP]))
29
and micelle shielding by bromine formation to enable quantitative extraction of Pu in
30
highly acidic solutions. Cross-optimization of all parameters (non-ionic and ionic
31
surfactant, chelating agent, bromate, bromide and pH) led to optimal of the extraction
32
conditions. Figures of merit of the method for the detection using alpha spectrometry
33
and ICP-MS are reported (limit of detection, limit of quantification, minimal detectable
34
activity and recovery). Quantitative extractions (> 95 %) were obtained for a wide
35
variety of aqueous and digested samples (synthetic urine, waste water, drinking
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water, sea water and soil samples). The method features the first successful coupling
37
between alpha spectrometry and cloud point extraction and was the first
38
demonstration of CPE suitability with metaborate fusion as a sample preparation
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approach, all techniques used extensively in nuclear industries.
40 41
Keywords
42
Cloud Point Extraction, Plutonium, Soil, ICP-MS, Alpha Spectrometry, Lithium
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Metaborate Fusion
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Analytical Chemistry
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1.
Introduction
45
The presence of trans-uranian elements in the environment is a clear evidence of
46
nuclear or radiological activities. These elements are radiotoxic, so reliable and fast
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environmental detection methods are important. However, as these elements are
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found in the environment at trace levels, it is important to develop strategies that lead
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to high preconcentration factors and isolation from matrix constituents1-2 even for
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refractory species, such as Pu. The importance of transuranian methodological
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development has also been highlighted by the recent events of the Fukushima-
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Daiichi accident where plutonium traces were found in the environment. 3
53 54
Many strategies have already been tried for the preparation of environmental
55
samples and determination of plutonium. Though liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is a
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well-established technique that gives reproducible and high extraction recoveries4 it
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produces non-negligible amount of wastes. This approach also presents some
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drawbacks and limitations associated with chemical nature of the processes. First,
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sample preparation is needed to separate actinides from matrix constituents(e.g. Al,
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Ca and Fe which interfere in environmental matrices) that interfere with the
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measurement and the separation process. A conventional strategy to overcome this
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issue is to precipitate transuranian elements as fluoride or hydroxide compounds. 5
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Second, the preconcentration factors (PF) achievable are limited by the breakthrough
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volume and the physical volume of the column in EXC and the volume of the
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extracting phase in LLE.
66 67
Among already-established analytical strategies that lead to high preconcentration
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factors, cloud point extraction has shown great promise since being introduced by
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Watanabe et al.6 for the extraction of Zn (II) using 1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-naphtol. Since
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then, many strategies have been proffered for the extraction of numerous elements. 7
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However, cloud point extraction has mostly been limited to metals in food and water
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samples, or to organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH)
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and pesticides in environmental samples. Most CPE (cloud point extraction)
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alternatives developed for solid environmental samples rely on leaching instead of
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total sample dissolution8-15, which limits the recoveries of refractory elements in
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solution such as transuranian elements. Most of these publications rely on filtration to
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remove the undissolved matrix, including silica, from the digestate. This strategy
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does not guarantee that transuranian elements could not be sorbed or trapped in
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these silicate structures. For most actinide species, complete sample digestion is
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required as they are present in the environment as refractory entities, which will be
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found prominently in the undigested portion.16 As an example, Roy et al.
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demonstrated that for uranium and thorium, incomplete dissolution led to improper
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quantification(up to 15%).17 Thus, the developed preconcentration method must be
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compatible with a digestion strategy yielding a complete and stable dissolution of
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samples. Based on these premises, transuranian elements would greatly benefit from
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the preconcentration methods achieved by CPE. The concept of CPE for
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transuranian elements has already been proposed, but experimental results have
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been modest.18 Only the CPE methods for uranium and thorium in aqueous samples
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have led to acceptable figures of merit. 19-20 We recently reported a CPE method for
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uranium in slightly acidic solutions (pH=3) using H2DEH[MDP],21 while this pH was
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significantly than other publications, this pH range was still incompatible with typical
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digestion. Adding bromine was found to provide a higher resistance to the acidity of
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the phase separation process. Meeravali et al. used bromine, mainly as an oxidant,
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for the extraction of thallium in highly acidic media (3 M HCl)22 and enable extraction
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in conditions compatible with sample preparation.
96 97
Since, Pu isotopic composition is frequently used as a tool to assess the origin of
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exposure, analytical instrumentation enabling the determination of isotopic signature
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at ultra-trace concentrations such as accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and
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thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) are regarded as prime technique for
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such purposes. However, these instruments are not widely accessible and have
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limited sample throughput, which limits their suitability, for example during a nuclear
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emergency. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), while less
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sensitive, is common in most analytical laboratories and can provide detection
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sensitive to the pg L-1 for most elements.23 Since the atomic masses of most
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actinides are located in a region (m/z =230 – 256) where low background signals are
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detected, interesting detection limits could be achieved through the use of sample
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preparation techniques such as CPE that generate high preconcentration factors.
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Yet, even with a high preconcentration factor, it would still be more challenging to
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measure short-lived isotopes (t½ < 1 600 y) at environmental levels using mass
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spectrometric instrumentation than with radiometric methods such as alpha
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spectrometry or liquid scintillation counting. Therefore, a multi-technique approach
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with both MS and radiometric instrumentation yielding a complete isotopic signature
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of transuranian elements such as Pu would be highly beneficial in nuclear and
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environmental sciences.
116 117
In this report, we have developed an approach for the analysis of plutonium in acidic
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media that is compatible with typical sample preparation methods. CPE was
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developed around H2DEH[MDP] as a ligand. H2DEH[MDP] has a known high
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extraction potential for all actinides, especially plutonium, as its K d (distribution
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constant) is among the highest of any actinides.24 While H2DEH[MDP] has never
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been used in cloud point extraction system to extract plutonium, the ligand is used in
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a commercially available solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge. The cartridge has
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already been applied to sample preparation, mainly
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measurements.25 Experiment on LLE extraction has shown high affinity to plutonium
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whereas little affinity was observed for calcium.4 Recent work has also been done on
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the usage of the specific ligand on a polymer ligand film (PLF) for the extraction of
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plutonium.26 Following the method development, analytical performances were
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evaluated in both digested and aqueous environmental matrices.
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Experimental
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Instrumentation
to make gross alpha
132 133
An ICP-QQQ-MS (Agilent 8800, Mississauga, ON, Canada) instrument was used for
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the mass spectrometric determination of Pu isotopes. The optimized instrument
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conditions are presented in Table S1. ‡ A centrifuge (Thermo Fisher Scientific Sorvall
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Legend XTR, Bremen, Germany) was used to accelerate the phase separation
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process and during the soil solution preparation with the appropriate rotor according
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to the volume. The pH values were measured with a pH meter (Sartorius PT-15,
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Mississauga, ON, Canada). An automated fusion unit (M-4 fluxer, Corporation
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Scientifique Claisse, Québec, Canada) and a MARS 5 microwave system (CEM
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Corporation, Matthews, NC, USA) were used for fusion and acid digestion of soil
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samples, respectively. Both approaches were used to compare the applicability of the
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proposed CPE method, parameter used for the sample preparation via the fusion and
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MW digestions are shown in ESI. ‡
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145 146 147
Reagents
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High purity water with a resistivity of 18.2 MΩ cm -1 provided by a Milli-Q water
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purification system (Millipore, Etobicoke, ON, Canada) was used throughout this
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investigation. A solution of
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and Technologies (NIST, Gaithersburg, MD) was used in the developmental stage of
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the CPE system and as a yield tracer of Pu in ICP-MS and alpha spectrometry.
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Pu, obtained from the National Institute of Standards
153 154
Rhodium (SCP Science, Baie D’Urfé, QC, Canada) was used as an internal standard
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for all spectrometric determinations. For alpha spectrometry,
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tracer to determine the recovery. Certified reference materials (EP-L-3, EP-H-3 and
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EU-L-3, low level waste water) were bought from SCP Science (Baie D’Urfé, QC,
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Canada). A stock solution of reagent-grade Triton X-114 (Sigma-Aldrich Canada,
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Oakville, ON, Canada) was used as a surfactant in the CPE. Other reagents used in
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the development of the CPE system were: KOH (Fisher Scientific, Ottawa, ON,
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Canada), HNO3 and KBr (Anachemia Chemical, Montreal, QC, Canada), KBrO3
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(J.T.Baker Chemical co., Phillipsburg, NJ), and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
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(CTAB) (Acros Chemicals, Ottawa, ON, Canada). These reagents were used without
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any purification. P,P di(2-ethylhexyl) methanediphosphonic acid (H2DEH[MDP]) was
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synthesized using the procedure proposed by Stepinski et al.27 using Sigma-Aldrich
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reagents (Sigma-Aldrich Canada, Oakville, ON, Canada). Purity was assessed via
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NMR spectroscopy using a Bruker AC 300 MHz NMR
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dissolved in an aqueous solution of Triton X-114 to enhance its solubility. Synthetic
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urine and artificial seawater matrices were made based on the protocol established
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by McCurdy et al.28 and Kester et al. 29, respectively.
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Pu was used as a
31
P and 1H. H2DEH[MDP] was
171 172
CPE system
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An aliquot samples with a volume ranging from 6.5 to 50 mL was spiked with a
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known concentration of plutonium, and the acid concentration was adjusted to
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approximately 2-4 M HNO3. The following parameters will be given for a typical
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solution of 6.5 mL although scale-up of the reaction was performed to achieved high
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preconcentration factor. 100 µL of a solution of 0.01 M of CTAB was added to the
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aliquoted sample, followed by 400 µL of an aqueous solution containing of 0.25 mM
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of H2DEH[MDP] dissolved in 0.2 mM of TTX-114. 0.15 mL of 0.1 M KBrO3 and 0.5 ml
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of 0.2 M KBr were added to complete the CPE system.
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Following the addition of the reagents, the solution was left stirring in a covered
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container for 30 minutes in an ice bath. The use of a lid limits emanations of bromine
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and potential exposure to vapors. The solution was then left to settle for 30 minutes
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at room temperature. Finally, the solution was centrifuged at 4700g for 10 minutes at
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a temperature of 20°C. The surfactant-rich phase (SRP) was isolated by removing
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the supernatant, then the SRP was redispersed in dilute acid solution (diluted HCl for
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alpha spectrometry or diluted HNO3 for ICP-MS) through sonication of the sample. A
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summary of the optimal CPE system conditions is presented in Table S4.‡ Using
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these conditions, analytical figures of merit were calculated using equations
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presented in ESI.‡ In order to provide a deeper understanding of the impact of each
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CPE parameter on the Pu extraction yield, ranges of concentrations near the optimal
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value by cross optimisation were assessed and are presented in the results and
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discussion section. Plutonium uptake were measured by alpha spectrometry on dilute
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soil solutions throughout the developmental stages of the method. Samples were
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counted using fluoride micro-precipitation proposed by Guerin et al.30
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Results and discussion
197
Effect of the complexing agent
198
Although no complex aggregation values exist for plutonium with H 2DEH[MDP], it is
199
expected to be similar to thorium since their valence states are the same. A ratio of
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2.5 extractant molecules per thorium ion is found when the typical complex is
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formed.31 These values were determined in toluene but are expected to remain much
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the same for our system as the hydrophobic core of TTX-114 micelles are composed
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by aromatic substituted molecules. The concentration of H2DEH[MDP] was always in
204
excess by several orders of magnitude compared to plutonium. Thus, it is of no
205
interest to test the ligand concentrations at which the breakthrough of plutonium
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occurs, as environmental concentrations of Pu would be in the range of ppt or Bq∙kg -1
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of soil, which is well-below the capacity of the method. The main advantage of CPE
208
resides in the preconcentration factors achievable,32 which are not needed for
209
samples with high Pu concentration.
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In the proposed conditions, H2DEH[MDP] proved to be fairly selective for Pu
212
compared to the rest of the matrix. The optimization was done for a soil matrix from
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the Gentilly-2 nuclear power plant, Bécancour, QC, composed of elements that could
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easily interfere with complexation of Pu. Hence, variation from ligand concentration
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changes are higher than in the method whose development was done using ultrapure
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water, but this is to be expected as the optimization was done using high solid
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sample such as soil digested by fusion.(Figure 1a) Nonetheless, complexation of Pu
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by H2DEH[MDP] was always found to be more favorable than the complexation of Ca
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and Fe, which are found in excess in the clay based-materials on which the method
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was tested, as evidenced by the high decontamination factors.(Table 2)
221 222
The method showed great resiliency (Figure 1a). Changes in the ligand
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concentrations did not significantly decrease the extraction efficiencies, which
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suggests that scale-up should be possible. The method also shows that, even though
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the extractant is amphiphilic, it does not affect the micelles’ chemical and physical
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properties as changes in parameters such as cloud point temperature or critical
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micelle concentration would greatly affect the chemical recoveries. This would rather
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confirm that the extractant and the formed complexes are inside the hydrophobic
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core than at the interface water-micelles. The impact of the ligand concentration on
230
uptake and thus CPT is minimal as they are found at lower concentration than TTX-
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114.
232 233
Effect of the bromate
234 235
As sample preparation in radiochemistry takes place generally in highly concentrated
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acid, there is a great need for methods that work in the same media to limit the
237
number of sample preparation steps and the possible contamination from the
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addition of reagent. Typically, salts of iodide and thiocyanide are used to influence
239
the environment of the micelles to modify the cloud point temperature. The positive
240
influence of these salts on the cloud point temperature is dependent of their
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polarizability. However, this strategy must be used with caution; some salts have a
242
significant complexing activity (e.g. thiocyanide and citrate) and could impact the
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selectivity of the method. Some salts will be unstable in acidic media (e.g. iodide
244
which form iodine in acidic solution). Among the halogens that are kinetically stable in
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water (iodine, bromine and chlorine), bromine was preferred as it is more stable than
246
chlorine, and easier to prepare in solution. Bromine is liquid at room temperature and
247
does not clog the nebuliser, unlike iodine, which is solid at room temperature and not
248
easily dissolved in water. The use of bromate is important as in acidic solution,
249
bromate and bromide in solution will comproportionate to form bromine following Eq.
250
1:
251
Bromate concentration was assessed instead of bromide for multiple reasons: it is an
252
efficient reagent for the valence adjustment of plutonium and bromide was found in
253
excess. Bromate is known as an efficient reagent that maintains plutonium in its
254
tetravalent oxidation state (by its oxidation potential). The reaction with bromine is
255
reversible according to Larsen et al., and this could results in the formation of a
256
mixture of Pu(III) and Pu(IV).33 However, the predominance of the Pu(IV) in the
257
conditions presented in the table S4 was confirmed by EXC (extraction
258
chromatography).
259 260
The use of bromine significantly improved the extraction efficiencies with acidic pH,
261
from less than 10% efficiency to quantitative recoveries of plutonium.(Figure 1b)
262
These results proved that the effect of high acidity was minimized by the presence of
263
bromine shielding around the micelles (it diminishes the stripping potential of acid in
264
solution and its disrupting impact on micelles). At the highest concentration of
265
bromate, extraction efficiencies decrease; this can be attributed to a competitive
266
complexation of plutonium with bromine.
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Fig. 1 Impact of various factors on plutonium uptake: a) H2DEH[MDP] b) Bromate c)
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TTX-114 (vertical reference line stads at the cmc) d) CTAB e) HNO3 molarity
270
n.b.: Other parameters were kept constant at the concentrations presented in Table
271
S4.
272 273
The effects of the non-ionic surfactant (NIS)
274
Triton X-114 was deemed a logical choice as a non-ionic surfactant for this
275
investigation for multiple reasons. First, its cloud point temperature is estimated at
276
28°C, which makes its phase separation possible at room temperature. Secondly,
277
one of the main appeals of cloud point extraction as a sample preparation technique
278
over liquid-liquid extraction is that the concentration needed to obtain phase
279
separation is minimal compared to the large volumes of solvents used for liquid-liquid
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extraction (as in the TALSPEAK process which use quantities of kerosene). 35 The
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reduced volume limits waste production, which are costly to manage and not
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environmental friendly. Thirdly, there is an abundance of knowledge on systems that
283
use TTX-114 and the impact of various parameters on the cloud point temperature
284
and critical micelle concentration.36
285 286
The best extraction performances are expected to be found at concentrations near
287
the critical micelle concentration (noted in Figure 1c by the vertical reference line), as
288
the phase separation process is thought to be more efficient than at higher
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concentration. The preconcentration factor achievable also increases when the
290
surfactant concentration is low, as it minimises the volume of the surfactant-rich
291
phase. The use of minimal quantities of non-ionic surfactant reduce the amount of ion
292
extracted in the absence of ligand and thus enhances the selectivity.37 Finally, the
293
minimization of the organic content is desirable as it prevents carbon deposits on the
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ICP-MS lens and cones.
295 296
The optimized concentration of 0.8 mmol/L provided quantitative and reproducible
297
extraction results. (Figure 1c) Small variations
298
surfactant had little impact on the method performance; extraction efficiencies were
299
stable over an order of magnitude of non-ionic surfactant concentration.
in the concentration of non-ionic
300 301
The impact of using low concentration of non-ionic surfactant on analytical
302
performances is direct on preconcentration values for example. A concentration of
303
0.8 mmol/L for a solution of 10 mL leads to a SRP volume of less than 100 µL. Using
304
this quantity of non-ionic surfactant, preconcentration factor values of up to 140 were
305
reached. This volume is so low that it must be redispersed in a small volume to be
306
injected in the ICP-MS or it can be treated via the typical micro-precipitation used to
307
couple separation methods to alpha spectrometry.
308
The effects of the ionic surfactant
309
Ionic surfactants were added to the CPE system to enhance the solubility of polar
310
molecules and the extraction efficiencies. As they impact the cloud point temperature,
311
they can be used to tune the system to a desired temperature. The most common
312
ionic surfactants used include anionic SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and cationic
313
CTAB (cethyl trimethyl ammonium bromide). CTAB was used for the system and its
314
concentration optimization was done throughout a wide range of concentration. The
315
system was found to be responsive to the presence of CTAB as chemical recoveries
316
went from 70 % to quantitative levels following the addition of CTAB. (Figure 1d)
317
The effects of acid concentration
318
In order to favor the use of CPE, the determination in environmental matrices, optimal
319
extraction conditions needs to be achieved in acidic media as discussed previously.
320
Such conditions are especially critical in the case of plutonium as its hydroxide is
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formed at low pH (< 2).38 However, in acidic conditions plutonium can be present
322
simultaneously as various species.39 However as demonstrated, only Pu(IV) is
323
present in the conditions tested. This shows that CPE enables actinide valence
324
adjustment as well as preconcentration, just as in solid phase extraction used for
325
actinide separation.
326
The pH range rendered possible by the formation of in situ Br2 is more compatible
327
with typical sample preparation techniques such as automated borate fusion, which
328
uses HNO3 concentrations from 1–3 M. The bromate concentration determined
329
previously is deemed to be ideal since with lower concentrations of bromate in
330
solution, strong acidic conditions are needed to efficiently form enough Br2 to have
331
reproducible extractions. The acid concentration at which Pu uptake is maximal
332
(Figure 1e) is consistent with the one reported by Horwitz et al.24 on the analogue
333
Actinide SPE cartridge.
334
Experimentation with acid concentrations also shows that an extraction mechanism
335
based on a micellar phase equilibrium is predominant, and aqueous solubility is not
336
the primary factor for the uptake efficiency determination.
337 338
Analytical Performances on Environmental Samples
339
The method presented was tested with environmental matrices to determine its
340
applicability for the analysis of real samples. A wide array of samples were selected
341
to determine the efficiencies and verify any possible interferences from the
342
matrix.(Table 1) The method proved to be reliable over a wide range of samples. To
343
determine the best-suited digestion system, automated borate fusion and microwave
344
(MW) digestion were compared. Soil digested with automated fusion led to a
345
complete dissolution with no residue. MW-digestion, using HNO3 and HF (10:1), led
346
to an incomplete dissolution that required filtration. Uptake using MW were lower than
347
for fusion which is due to the presence of F- which is a potent ligand for plutonium.
348
This affirmation is supported by the observed decrease of the uranium, neptunium
349
and americium uptake for the extractant used on a solid support. 24 Determination of
350
Pu in HQ-G2 by MW digestion was not attempted as significant dilution would have
351
been necessary to prevent damages to ICP-MS rendering Pu quantification
352
impossible. Otherwise,
significant quantities of a fluoride scavenger would be
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necessary minimizing the separation accomplished by CPE.
354 355
Table 1: Determination of plutonium in environmental matrices Digestion Method
Spike Recoveries (%) Alpha Spectrometry
ICP-MS (n=4)
LiBO2:LiBr fusion
95 ± 2
99 ± 9
MW-digestion (HNO3:HF)(10:1)
30 ± 20
N.A.
N.A.
97
93 ± 9
N.A.
100
95 ± 9
SCP-EU-L-3 (waste water)
N.A.
93
109 ± 4
SCP-EP-L-3 (drinking water)
N.A.
102
100 ± 7
SCP-EP-H-3 (drinking water)
N.A.
98
109 ± 4
IAEA-384 (sediment)
LiBO2:LiBr fusion
102 ± 7
95 ± 9
Soil (HQ-G2)
[28]
Urine [29]
Sea Water
356 357
N.A. = not applicable
358
Soil extraction by borate fusion led to quantitative results, even though potential
359
competitive ions such as iron and calcium are present in abundance. 24 The quantity
360
of calcium ions in the surfactant-rich phase is low as the resolution of the peaks in
361
alpha spectrometry does not decrease when soils are analyzed. The presence of
362
competing ions was validated by ICP-OES. (Table 2) Lithium metaborate used for the
363
sample preparation is reduced in the SRP (decontaminating factor of 20) minimising
364
the presence of Li+ and BO2- in the SRP, one of the main concerns of coupling borate
365
fusion to ICP-MS.
366 367
The method performances was also demonstrated via the analysis of a certified
368
reference material. (IAEA-384) (Table 3) The ratios obtained from the analysis of the
369
material were within acceptable error limits of the expected value and proved that the
370
total recoveries can be achieved by fusion dissolution. This also demonstrates that
371
the method is suitable for the analysis of environmental materials and the
372
determination of the isotopic composition. The method also showed great
373
performance using complementary instruments (ICP-MS and alpha spectrometry),
374
enabling the measurement of both short-lived and long lived Pu isotopes.
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375 376
Based on the results presented in Table 1 and Table 3, it is clear that the proposed
377
approach is applicable for the determination of plutonium even though H 2DEH[MDP]
378
is known to extract other actinides, such as uranium. The presence of an interfering
379
signal from 238U at m/z=239 (as abundance sensitivity or hydride) could explain some
380
of the positive bias reported in table 3. However it was demonstrated that for a 10
381
mg∙L-1 uranium standard, extraction efficiency in the conditions presented is
382
approximately 30%. This observation suggests that some level of separation between
383
U and Pu could be achieved, especially if the conditions were optimized for this
384
purpose.
385
Analytical figures of merit
386
The proposed method features high chemical recoveries and a low detection limit,
387
and is compatible with alpha and mass spectrometric instrumentation. The
388
combination of multiple instruments allows for an almost complete isotopic
389
investigation, which is potentially useful for safety and nuclear forensic applications.
390
The use of radiometric and mass spectrometry allows the determination of both long-
391
lived isotopes and short-lived isotopes with good precision. A minimal detectable
392
activity40 of 0.02 mBq/L and a detection limit varying between 15 and 200 pg∙L -1 are
393
acheivable by alpha spectrometry and ICP-MS respectively. The proposed method
394
compares well to other published liquid extraction methods with respect to LOD(limit
395
of detection), PF, and extraction efficiency. (Table 4) As the method is based on
396
CPE, high preconcentration factors >140 are achieved, which is particularly
397
attractive, especially at very acidic pH. Typically, preconcentration factors are
398
hampered because higher quantities of TTX-114 are required41 which affect poorly
399
on the overall analytical performances. As proposed, the use of Br2 results in lower
400
TTX-114 concentrations and thus higher PF. The main advantage of the proposed
401
method over other existing extraction methods is the minimal sample preparation
402
needed before the actual extraction. As proposed, the only sample preparation
403
needed before performing CPE is the elimination of silica in solution using PEG-
404
6000.42 This step, although necessary as silica is unstable in highly acidic solution, is
405
not time-consuming and does decrease the extraction yield. In this respect, the
406
proposed CPE does not use CaF2 co-precipitation involving HF or hydroxide
407
precipitation used in most methods.23 These methods are not selective as multiple
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Analytical Chemistry
ions and alkaline earth ions will follow actinides in the precipitation process.
409 410
Even with minimal sample preparation, the method proposed yielded an excellent
411
plutonium extraction (>98%) and selectivity towards this element compared to other
412
matrix constituents such as alkaline earth and transition metals in solution (table 2).
413
Most decontamination factors values measured were near 50 for high solid content
414
solutions. Note that lanthanum’s decontamination factor is low, as a result of its low
415
abundance in environmental matrices which complicates its detection by ICP-OES.
416 417
The proposed method also compares well against the analogue resin method. The
418
elution from the Actinides resin, which contains H2DEH[MDP], in aqueous media is
419
not quantitative, as the complex formed is too stable. Hence, the complex is usually
420
stripped with EtOH, which is incompatible at high concentrations with mass
421
spectrometry, 43 though the proposed method with redispersion of the SRP through
422
sonication is simple and quantitative. Croudace et al.44 also proposed to digest the
423
resin using borate fusion, but this strategy worked against the main advantage of
424
these methods as separation from the highly concentrated lithium borate matrix is
425
nullified.
426
Table 2 Amount of concomitant ions left after CPE on digested soils and the corresponding decontamination factor. [Elements]
Supernatant (ppm)
SRP (ppm)
Decontamination Factor
Li+
3300 ± 200
60 ± 9
55
B3+
4000 ± 200
155 ± 40
25
Ca2+
13.2 ± 0.2
1320
Fe3+
284 ± 3
7±1
40
Sr2+
2.16 ± 0.06
0.03 ± 0.01
79
La3+
0.023 ± 0.04
0.002
12
Al3+
273 ± 6
4,5 ± 0.7
61
Ba2+
0.92 ± 0.02
18
427
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Table 3: Activity Measured in IAEA-384 Reference Material in comparison to Reference values. (n=4) IAEA-384
429 430 431 432
433 434
Alpha Spectrometry (Bq∙kg-1)
ICP-MS (Bq∙kg-1)
Referred Values (Bq∙kg-1)45
Bias (%)
Pu-238
36 ± 3
-
38.9 ± 0.6
-7.4
Pu-239
-
110 ± 20
97 ± 9
13.4
Pu-[239-240]
107 ± 9
-
107 ± 2
0
Pu-241a
-
-
56 ± 5
-
Pu-242 b
-
-
1.9 ± 0.5c
-
a) β- emitter (liquid scintillation counting required); b) Used as a tracer c) Pu-242 values in italic as too few data were reported
Table 4 : Analytical performance of the proposed method with Pu
a
Extraction Technique
Extractant
Diluent
PF
M.D.A. (mBq∙L-1)
LOD 239 Pu (pg∙L-1)
LOQ 239 Pu (pg∙L-1)
LOD 242 Pu (pg∙L-1)
CPE
H2DEH[MDP]
TTX-114
>140
0.02
15
50
200
LLE
Malonamide
C4mimTf2
N.P.
N.P.
N.P.
N.P.
N.P.
LLE
TBP
Dodecane
N.P.
0,2
N.P.
N.P.
N.P.
LOQ Extraction Instruments References 242 Pu Efficiency % (pg∙L-1) (n=4) ICP-QMS ; 700 >98 Alpha This work Spectrometry; N.P. 99 LSC 46 N.P.
60 ± 7
Alpha Spectrometry
LOQ = limit of quantification; LOD = limit of detection; PF = preconcentration factor; N.P. = not provided
435 436
Conclusion
437
The proposed CPE method is well suited for the preconcentration and determination
438
of plutonium in a wide array of samples and showed an exceptional preconcentration
439
factor for highly acidic samples. We believe that the methodology could become a
440
green alternative to its liquid-liquid extraction counterpart, which uses much larger
441
quantities of solvent. The conditions found are consistent with the conditions used for
442
uranium extraction in a similar system,47 as H2DEH[MDP], TTX-114 and the CTAB
443
dependence is also similar despite the major differences in the extraction pH, high
444
solid matrices, and the use of a Br2/BrO3- system.
445 446
The proposed method also demonstrates the applicability of the CPE system to solid
447
samples dissolved by borate fusion. This coupling was possible due to the resistance
448
of the proposed method to highly saline media. Using this coupling, the determination
449
of the specific activity of many isotopes of plutonium was possible by both ICP-MS
450
and alpha spectrometry.
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451 452
Acknowledgements
453
This work was financially supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering
454
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation
455
(CFI). The authors would like to thank Corporation Scientifique Claisse for providing
456
the automated fusion unit.
457
Author Informations
458
a
459
genie, Universite Laval, 1045 Avenue de la Medecine, Bureau 1250D, Pavillon
460
Alexandre-Vachon, Quebec, QC, Canada G1V 0A6. E-mail:
461
[email protected]; Fax: +418 656-7916; Tel: +418-656-7250
Laboratoire de Radioecologie, Departement de chimie, Faculte des sciences et de
462 463
Notes
464
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
465
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