Article pubs.acs.org/JPCC
Controlling the Growth of Au on Icosahedral Seeds of Pd by Manipulating the Reduction Kinetics Tian Lv,†,‡ Xuan Yang,† Yiqun Zheng,§ Hongwen Huang,† Lei Zhang,† Jing Tao,∥ Likun Pan,‡ and Younan Xia*,†,§ †
The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States ‡ Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People’s Republic of China § School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States ∥ Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: This article reports a systematic study of how Au atoms nucleate and grow on Pd icosahedral seeds with a multiply twinned structure. By manipulating the reduction kinetics, we obtained Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals with two distinct shapes and structures. Specifically, Pd@Au core−shell icosahedra were formed when a relatively fast reduction rate was used for the HAuCl4 precursor. At a slow reduction rate, in contrast, the nucleation and growth of Au atoms were mainly confined to one of the vertices of a Pd icosahedral seed, resulting in the formation of a Au icosahedron by sharing five adjacent faces with the Pd seed. The same growth pattern was observed for Pd icosahedral seeds with both sizes of 32 and 20 nm. We have also investigated the effects of other kinetic parameters, including the concentration of reducing agent and reaction temperature, on the growth pathway undertaken by the Au atoms. We believe that the mechanistic insights obtained from this study can be extended to other systems, including the involvement of different metals and/or seeds with different morphologies.
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INTRODUCTION Bimetallic nanocrystals have attracted considerable attention in recent years because of their unique properties for a variety of applications in catalysis, electronics, photonics, plasmonics, and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS).1−7 As a major advantage over their monometallic counterparts, the properties of bimetallic nanocrystals can be engineered by controlling the spatial distributions of the constituent elements.8−18 Thanks to the efforts from many groups, a variety of bimetallic nanocrystals, including those with a dimeric, dendritic, or core−shell configuration, have been successfully synthesized using solution-phase methods.19−30 Among these methods, seed-mediated growth, in which newly formed atoms are directed to nucleate and grow on the surface of a preformed seed, has proven to be the most effective, versatile, and reliable approach because the complicated, hard-to-control selfnucleation process can be avoided.27 Both the heterogeneous nucleation and growth of atoms on the surface of a seed are sensitive to the reduction kinetics involved in a seed-mediated synthesis.31,32 By manipulating the reduction kinetics, bimetallic nanocrystals with novel structures, including those with an unsymmetric distribution for the constituent elements, have been obtained.27 In general, the © 2016 American Chemical Society
nucleation will be limited to one or a few of the many equivalent sites on the surface of a seed when the reduction of the precursor is kept relatively slow, resulting in the formation of unsymmetric structures. In contrast, when the precursor is reduced at a relatively fast rate, nucleation will be able to occur at all available sites on the surface of a seed, leading to the formation of a core−shell structure. If the reduction is too fast, however, surface diffusion of the adatoms will become inadequate relative to the deposition of atoms and bumps or protruding arms will be formed on the surface.33 The reduction kinetics of seed-mediated synthesis can be controlled in a number of different ways, including the use of different precursor/reductant combinations and concentrations, as well as the temperature.34−37 In particular, our group has demonstrated that syringe pump can be used to conveniently manipulate the reduction kinetics of a seed-mediated synthesis and thus obtain nanocrystals (both mono- and bimetallic) with a variety of structures or morphologies.38 For example, by Special Issue: Richard P. Van Duyne Festschrift Received: February 26, 2016 Revised: March 27, 2016 Published: March 29, 2016 20768
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
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vial in one shot with a pipet. The synthesis was stopped by immersing the vial in an ice−water bath after the reaction had proceeded for 3 h. For the synthesis of 20 nm Pd icosahedra, the procedure was the same as what was used for the 32 nm icosahedra, except that DEG was replaced by TEG and the reaction temperature was increased to 130 °C. The Pd icosahedra were collected by centrifugation at 10 000 rpm for 15 min and washed with acetone and DI water, and finally redispersed in 3 mL of DI water for further use or storage. Synthesis of Pd−Au Bimetallic Nanocrystals. For the standard procedure, 5.4 mL of an aqueous suspension containing the as-prepared 32 nm Pd icosahedra (0.33 mM in terms of elemental Pd), AA (0.37 mM), and PVP (3.3 mM) were mixed in a 20 mL vial. The mixture was held at room temperature for 20 min under magnetic stirring. Meanwhile, 2 mL of an aqueous HAuCl4 solution (0.5 mM) was freshly prepared at room temperature and injected into the vial at a controlled rate. In all cases, the reaction solution was maintained under magnetic stirring for another 10 min after all of the HAuCl4 solution had been injected to allow the reaction to complete. The product was collected by centrifugation at 10 000 rpm for 15 min and washed with water three times. Instrumentation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images were obtained using a Hitachi H-7500 microscope operated at 75 kV. High-resolution TEM images, high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM) images, and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) mapping were acquired using a double Cs-corrected JEOL ARM200F TEM at Brookhaven National Laboratory. An Eppendorf centrifuge (5430) was used for the centrifugation and washing of all samples.
controlling the injection rate for the precursor solution, the newly formed Ag (or Au) atoms could be directed to selectively nucleate and then epitaxially grow from one to six faces of a Pd cubic seed, leading to the formation of hybrid dimers and nonconcentric or concentric core−shell nanocrystals.8,39 For single-crystal seeds, the sites available for heterogeneous nucleation and growth are often determined by the types of facets involved, together with the influence of surface capping agents. When switched to seeds with twin defects, one will have another means to manipulate the products as the twin boundaries tend to serve as sites for heterogeneous nucleation and growth due to their surface free energies. As a notable example, Ag, Au, Pd, and Cu penta-twinned nanorods have been synthesized from Au, Pd, or Ag decahedral seeds under a relatively slow reduction for the precursor.40−44 These examples clearly demonstrate that it is the interplay between the twin defects and reduction kinetics that controls the growth pattern or pathway of a seed. To gain a better understanding of the interplay between twin defects and reduction kinetics, it would be interesting to explore the use of Pd icosahedra as seeds for the heterogeneous nucleation and growth of another noble metal under controllable reduction kinetics. Although an icosahedron contains 12 vertices and 30 edges lined by twin defects, its surface is less heterogeneous than that of a decahedron, whose surface contains by two different types of vertices and edges.45 During seed-mediated growth, the newly formed atoms are expected to nucleate from the vertices of an icosahedron and then spread to edges and side faces through surface diffusion. Depending on the reduction kinetics involved, two distinct types of bimetallic nanocrystals are expected to appear, namely, side-by-side dimers and core−shell icosahedra. The present study was focused on the nucleation and growth of Au atoms on Pd icosahedral seeds. The reduction kinetics could be controlled by varying a number of experimental parameters, including the injection rate of HAuCl4 precursor and thus its concentration in the growth solution, the concentration of the reducing agent, and the reaction temperature. At a slow reduction rate, the nucleation of Au atoms was confined to one of the 12 vertices, leading to the formation of a Pd−Au dimeric structure. At a fast reduction rate, in contrast, the Au atoms could nucleate from all 12 vertices and then grow from the entire surface of a Pd icosahedral seed, resulting in the formation of a Pd@Au core− shell icosahedron. The growth pattern was found to exhibit a similar dependence on the reduction kinetics for Pd icosahedral seeds of both 32 and 20 nm in size.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We used a syringe pump to control the introduction of an aqueous HAuCl4 solution into an aqueous mixture containing Pd icosahedral seeds, AA, and PVP under magnetic stirring at room temperature. By varying the injection rate and other reaction parameters, such as the concentration of AA and the reaction temperature, we could maneuver the growth mode undertaken by Au atoms when they were deposited onto the Pd icosahedral seeds. Figure 1 shows TEM images of Pd icosahedral seeds and the Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained with different injection rates for the HAuCl4 solution. Specifically, Figure 1a shows a TEM image and the corresponding 3D model of the Pd icosahedral seeds with an average size (defined as the distance between two opposite faces) of 32 nm. Figure 1b−d shows TEM images and the corresponding 3D models of the Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained after the introduction of 2 mL of HAuCl4 solution in different ways. At a relatively slow injection rate of 0.2 mL h−1 (Figure 1b), the nucleation and growth of Au atoms were confined to five adjacent twin boundaries on a Pd icosahedral seed, resulting in the formation of a Pd−Au dimer. In this case, the Au portion also took an icosahedral structure by sharing five of its faces with the Pd icosahedral seed. The growth pattern was similar to what was observed in our previous study, where a Pd−Au hybrid dimer was formed through the nucleation and growth of Au atoms from one of the six faces of a Pd cubic seed at a relatively slow injecting rate.39 When the injection rate of the HAuCl4 precursor was increased from 0.2 to 0.5 mL h−1 while all other parameters were kept the same, the concentration of Au atoms around each
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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Chemicals and Materials. Diethylene glycol (DEG, lot no. BCBK6125V), triethylene glycol (TEG, lot no. BCBJ5292J), poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP, MW ≈ 55 000), gold(III) chloride trihydrate (HAuCl4·3H2O, ≥99.9%), sodium tetrachloropalladate (Na2PdCl4, ≥99.9%), aqueous HCl solution (37 wt % or ca. 12 M), and ascorbic acid (AA, ≥99.0%) were all obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and used as received. Deionized (DI) water with a resistivity of 18.2 MΩ·cm was used throughout the experiments. Synthesis of Pd Icosahedra. For the synthesis of 32 nm Pd icosahedra, 80 mg of PVP was dissolved in 2 mL of DEG in a 20 mL vial and heated in an oil bath at 105 °C for 20 min under magnetic stirring. Meanwhile, another solution was prepared by dissolving 15.5 mg of Na2PdCl4 in a mixture of 1 mL of DEG and 2.5 μL of HCl (37%) and then added to the 20769
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
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the Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals. The HAADF-STEM image in Figure 2a shows clear contrast between the Pd and Au portions arranged side by side, confirming the formation of a Pd−Au dimeric structure. The elemental distributions of an individual Pd−Au dimer were revealed by line scan profiles, HAADF-STEM, and EDX mapping in Figure 2b−e. Distinct Au signal was detected from one side, while the Pd signal was observed from the other side, confirming the formation of a Pd−Au side-by-side dimeric structure. The HAADF-STEM image in Figure 3a confirms the formation of a Pd@Au core−shell structure. The magnified HAADF-STEM image in the inset of Figure 3b shows a perfect core−shell structure with a uniform shell thickness of ca. 4 nm. The elemental distributions of a single Pd@Au core−shell icosahedron were confirmed by line scan profiles, HAADFSTEM, and EDX mapping shown in Figure 3b−e. The EDX mapping clearly shows a difference in color between the interior (green, mainly Pd) and the outer layer (red, mainly Au), confirming the formation of a bimetallic core−shell structure. To resolve the detail steps involved in the growth of Pd−Au icosahedral dimers, we conducted a set of experiments by varying the volume of HAuCl4 solution added to the growth solution. Figure 4 shows TEM images and the corresponding 3D models of the Pd−Au dimeric nanocrystals obtained. When a smaller volume of HAuCl4 solution was added to the reaction solution (0.25 vs. 2 mL) while all other conditions were kept the same as in Figure 1b, the Au atoms were only able to nucleate from one of the 12 vertices of a Pd icosahedral seed due to the limited supply of precursor (Figure 4a). The heterogeneous nucleation took place from a vertex rather than an edge or a side face simply because of the highest surface free energy at the vertex site. When the volume of HAuCl4 solution was increased to 0.75 mL, some of the newly generated Au atoms were spread from the vertex site to one of its adjacent
Figure 1. (a) TEM images of the 32 nm Pd icosahedral seeds and (b− d) the Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained by injecting the aqueous HAuCl4 solution at different rates: (b) 0.2 mL h−1, (c) 0.5 mL h−1, and (d) one shot. The scale bar in the inset of panel b is 20 nm. The inset in the upper right corner shows a 3D model of the corresponding nanocrystal.
Pd seed was increased to a level high enough to facilitate nucleation and growth from the entire surface of a Pd seed, resulting in the formation of a Pd@Au core−shell icosahedron (Figure 1c). Similarly, when the HAuCl4 solution was added to the reaction mixture in one shot, we also obtained Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals, but with a rough surface (Figure 1d), owing to the uneven deposition of Au atoms along different directions of a seed. We then used HAADF-STEM, HRTEM, and EDX elemental mapping to fully characterize the structure and composition of
Figure 2. Structural characterizations of the Pd−Au dimeric nanocrystals obtained by injecting the HAuCl4 solution at a rate of 0.2 mL h−1: (a) HAADF-STEM image, (b) line scan profiles of a single Pd−Au dimer along the dashed line, and (c−e) EDX elemental mapping. The inset of panel b is a HAADF-STEM image for one particle. 20770
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
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Figure 3. Structural characterizations of the Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals obtained by injecting the HAuCl4 solution at a rate of 0.5 mL h−1: (a) HAADF-STEM image, (b) line scan profiles of a single Pd@Au core−shell icosahedron along the dashed line, and (c−e) EDX elemental mapping. The inset of panel b is a HAADF-STEM image for one particle.
structure was fully developed for the Au component by sharing five faces with the Pd icosahedral seed (Figure 1b). In addition to the injection rate, the concentration of AA was also found to play a critical role in controlling the reduction rate of HAuCl4 during the formation of Pd−Au nanocrystals. Figure 5 shows typical TEM images of the products obtained at different concentrations of AA while the injection rate was set to 0.5 mL h−1 for the HAuCl4 solution. At a relatively low concentration of AA (0.28 mM), the number of Au atoms derived from the reduction of HAuCl4 stayed at a low level around each Pd seed. These Au atoms were unable to initiate multiple nucleation sites on a Pd seed. Typically, only 1 of the 12 vertices was involved in the heterogeneous nucleation process, leading to the formation of Pd−Au bimetallic dimers (Figure 5a). When the concentration of AA was increased to 0.37 mM, there were adequate Au atoms in the solution to ensure multiple nucleation sites on each Pd seed and thereby the formation of Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals (Figure 1c). When the concentration of AA was increased to 1.11 mM, the number of Au atoms would be large enough to generate multiple nucleation sites on each Pd seed while the diffusion rate of Au adatoms would not change. As a result, Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals with a rough surface were formed (Figure 5b). These results indicate that the nucleation and growth of Au on a Pd icosahedral seed was highly sensitive to the concentration of AA. It is a combination of the HAuCl4 injection rate and the concentration of AA that determines the deposition rate of Au atoms onto each Pd seed and thus the growth pattern. We also investigated the role of reducing agent in the formation of Pd−Au nanocrystals by injecting the HAuCl4 solution in one shot. Figure S1 shows the typical TEM images of products obtained at different concentrations of AA, while all other conditions were kept the same as in Figure 1d. When the concentration of AA was relatively low (0.28 mM), Pd−Au bimetallic dimers were obtained (Figure S1a). In this case, Au
Figure 4. TEM images of Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained by injecting the HAuCl4 solution at a rate of 0.2 mL h−1. The total volumes of the added HAuCl4 solution were: (a) 0.25, (b) 0.75, (c) 1.0, and (d) 1.5 mL. The scale bars in the insets are 20 nm. The inset in the upper right corner shows a 3D model of the corresponding nanocrystal.
side faces, generating a Pd−Au dimer with a partially developed Au tetrahedron (Figure 4b). As the volume of HAuCl4 solution was increased to 1.0 mL, four Au tetrahedral particles were formed by sharing two adjacent faces of a Pd icosahedral seed (Figure 4c). When the volume of HAuCl4 solution reached 1.5 mL, the number of Au tetrahedral units increased to more than eight, and these Au tetrahedral units shared three or four adjacent faces of a Pd icosahedral seed (Figure 4d). Finally, at a volume of 2.0 mL for the HAuCl4 solution, an icosahedral 20771
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
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The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
Figure 5. TEM images of Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained in the presence of AA at two different concentrations: (a) 0.28 and (b) 1.11 mM, respectively. The injection rate for the HAuCl4 solution was kept at 0.5 mL h−1. The scale bar in the inset of panel a is 20 nm.
atoms mainly nucleated and grew from fewer than 5 of the 20 faces of a Pd icosahedral seed, similar to the Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained at the same concentration of AA but at a lower injection rate for the HAuCl4 solution (0.5 mL h−1, Figure 5a). When the reduction kinetics was speeded up by increasing the concentration of AA to 1.11 mM, the resultant Au atoms would nucleate and grow from the entire surface of a Pd icosahedral seed, resulting in the formation of Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals with a rough surface (Figure S1b). Different from the case shown in Figure 1d, however, some Au nanoparticles were also formed through homogeneous nucleation due to the high concentration of AA and thus a much accelerated reduction rate. Reaction temperature is also an important parameter to examine because it directly controls the reduction rate and surface diffusion rate and thus the shape of the final products.33 Figure 6 shows TEM images of Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained at different reaction temperatures, with all of the other parameters being kept the same as in Figure 1b. At a relatively low temperature of 0 °C, Au bumps (one or a few) were formed on each Pd icosahedral seed and the Au particles were dominated by either a partial icosahedral or plate-like morphology (Figure 6a). In contrast, when the temperature was increased to 40 °C, a mixture of Pd−Au bimetallic dimers and Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals was obtained due to the enhancement in surface diffusion (Figure 6b). At 60 °C, the surface diffusion of Au atoms was further accelerated, leading to the formation of Pd@Au core−shell icosahedra (Figure 6c). These results suggest that the reaction temperature plays a critical role in the formation of Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals with different morphologies. In general, a higher reaction temperature would speed up the surface diffusion of Au
Figure 6. TEM images of nanocrystals obtained by injecting 2 mL of the HAuCl4 solution at 0.2 mL h−1 while the solution was set to different temperatures: (a) 0, (b) 40, and (c) 60 °C. The concentration of AA was 0.37 mM. The scale bars in the insets are 20 nm.
adatoms to facilitate the formation of Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals. Finally, we also extended the same research to Pd icosahedral seeds with a much smaller size of 20 nm. In this case, we conducted a set of experiments by replacing the 32 nm Pd icosahedra with 20 nm Pd icosahedra while all other experimental parameters were kept the same as in Figure 1. Figure S2a shows a TEM image of the as-prepared Pd icosahedral seeds with an average size of 20 nm. At a relatively low injection rate of 0.2 mL h−1 for the HAuCl4 solution, Pd− Au dimers were also obtained (Figure S2b). Different from the dimers obtained using 32 nm Pd icosahedral seeds, the Au portion shared more than five faces with the Pd icosahedral seed due to the spreading of Au atoms through surface migration. Increasing the injection rate of HAuCl4 precursor from 0.2 to 0.5 mL h−1 while keeping other conditions the same, Pd@Au core−shell spheres were obtained (Figure S2c). Apparently, the surface diffusion of Au atoms was able to cover the entire surface of a Pd seed because of the reduced length scale. When the HAuCl4 precursor was introduced in one shot, Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystals with a rough surface and 20772
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
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discrete Au nanoparticles were obtained due to the involvement of both heterogeneous and homogeneous nucleation (Figure S2d).
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CONCLUSIONS In summary, we have successfully controlled the growth of Au on a Pd icosahedral seed by manipulating the reduction kinetics. By varying a set of experimental parameters, including the injection rate of the Au precursor solution, the concentration of reducing agent, and reaction temperature, two types of Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals were obtained with respect to different reduction rates. At a fast reduction rate, the Au atoms could nucleate and grow from the entire surface of a Pd icosahedral seed, leading to the formation of a Pd@Au core−shell nanocrystal. In contrast, at a relatively slow reduction rate, the Au atoms preferentially nucleated and grew from one of the vertices of a Pd icosahedral seed, resulting in the formation of a Pd−Au dimer. We have validated the growth patterns using Pd icosahedral seeds with two different sizes of 20 and 32 nm. We believe the mechanistic understanding obtained in this work can also be extended to other combinations of noble metals as well as to seeds with different morphologies.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022. TEM images of the initial Pd icosahedral seeds, Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained by injecting the HAuCl4 solution in one shot in the presence of AA at different concentrations, and Pd−Au bimetallic nanocrystals obtained by injecting the HAuCl4 solution at different rates. (PDF)
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. Phone: 404-385-3209. Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported in part by a grant from NSF (CHE1505441) and startup funds from the Georgia Institute of Technology. The electron microscopy analysis at BNL was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Basic Energy Sciences, through the Materials Sciences and Engineering Division under Contract No. DE-AC02-98CH10886. As visiting Ph.D. students from East China Normal University and Xiamen University, respectively, T.L. and L.Z. were both partially supported by the China Scholarship Council (CSC).
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b02022 J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 20768−20774
