Discovering the Chemical Elements in Food - ACS Publications

Activity Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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Discovering the Chemical Elements in Food Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal* Universidad de Málaga, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Didáctica de las Ciencias Experimentales, Málaga 29071, Spain IES Juan Ramón Jiménez, Málaga 29006, Spain S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: The educational possibilities of combining four powerful teaching strategies (context-based teaching, inquirybased teaching, murals, and augmented reality) in the learning of the chemical elements are reported in this paper. We present a project involving 15-year-old students who research and identify the chemical elements present in food using an inquiry-based approach. Students organize their findings in four categories according to the role of the chemical element in the food (major elements, essential trace elements, toxic trace elements, and chemical food preservation). Conclusions were disseminated through a large mural with audio QR codes where results can be explored for students using a smart phone. To investigate the effectiveness of the project we ask students to identify chemical elements in food and whether their intake was beneficial or harmful to health, before (pretest) and after (post-test) the project. In the first case, only five foods (milk products, bananas, lentils, water, and salt) made up 100% of responses in pretest and 80% in post-test. In the second case, the chi-square test showed significant differences between pretest and post-test, with students mentioning both beneficial and harmful effects on health to a greater degree after the project. However, no significant differences were detected in pretest and post-test justifications, even though a wider variety of responses were found in the post-test in all cases. Finally, a concept inventory for elements in food is proposed from the students’ responses. KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, High School/Introductory Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Collaborative/Cooperative Learning, Humor/Puzzles/Games, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Applications of Chemistry, Student-Centered Learning, Periodicity/Periodic Table

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BACKGROUND The learning of the chemical elements in schools is essential in the chemistry class, but could be very monotonous if it is limited to the classic memorization of names and symbols of the elements. For this reason, many authors have proposed different strategies for teaching and learning the chemical elements and the periodic table. Undoubtedly, educational games are the most widespread strategy to achieve this aim, and the high number of papers published in the literature in the past decade proves this.1−10 However, other strategies for teaching chemistry are gradually being consolidated, such as the daily life context-based teaching, the inquiry-based learning, the augmented reality approach, or the use of murals. Context-based teaching and learning could be a powerful strategy because relevant situations of interest to students could help them interpret the natural world encouraging a more positive attitude toward and a better understanding of chemistry.11−13 In its use as a didactic strategy we must take into account that contexts should be carefully selected13 and that an important aspect of scientific literacy is engagement with science in a variety of situations; the context is a specific setting within a situation.14 Inquiry-based learning, widely promoted to increase literacy and skill development,15 is presented too as a useful approach to work on the context in the class, since students must answer a question, collect data, analyze them, and draw conclusions.16 Once conclusions are established, the dissemination of learning is shown as an equally important aspect to develop. In this respect, the use of large posters and murals made by students © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

presents several advantages for students in order to disseminate and consolidate knowledge such as the main focus being on students and their learning process; it fosters cooperation and stimulates critical attitude; key competences are developed, and creativity is promoted.17 Furthermore, additional motivation is promoted if murals are exhibited in class or in common shared spaces in the school, as this will encourage meaningful learning, or consolidate different scientific knowledge.18 On the other hand, the use of smart phones in education is being consolidated as a resource in chemistry classroom which motivates students.19 Augmented reality (AR) has contributed significantly to such purpose because a person can enable interaction with the real world in different ways using a smart phone or tablet with Internet connection and an application. Nowadays, AR technology has matured to the point where it can be applied to a much wider range of domains, and chemistry education is an area where this technology could be especially valuable.20 The introduction of simple AR tools in murals such as QR codes would facilitate the learning of the content and could also be used to enhance collaborative tasks. On balance, the use of the inquiry-based approach in a context combined with murals and AR to disseminate the results is shown to be a good method of work in the class learning the chemical elements. This paper intends to continue to look into the students’ daily life contexts that facilitate the Received: March 23, 2017 Revised: December 14, 2017

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00218 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

Journal of Chemical Education

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Inquiry-Based Learning

teaching−learning of the chemical elements and their uses, as we did recently in the context of the different materials that make up a car.18 The innovative aspect of this article is to study the educational possibilities of combining four strategies (context, inquiry-based teaching, murals, and AR) in the learning of the chemical elements in secondary education.

This project promotes an inquiry-based learning approach where the dissemination of the learning is made through murals with AR tools. Students experience chemistry first hand at their own leisure and engage in activities where information is discovered by them rather than passively transmitted to them. The project follows the usual stages in an inquiry-based teaching strategy (Figure 1): (1) problem statement (a question or problem related to the topic of inquiry to be explored), (2) data collection (a research and gathering of information related to the question), (3) analysis (a discussion of findings including a brainstorming to compare the research data collected and the study of some chemistry topics), and (4) conclusions (a reflection on what was learned). The benefits of inquiry-based learning include the development of critical thinking, creative thinking, and problem solving. Next, the teaching process and the students’ learning strategies are explained for each stage.

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PROJECT DESCRIPTION This paper reports on a project involving 15-year-old adolescents who study the chemical elements using an inquiry-based approach in the context of food and creating large murals including audio QR codes as an AR tool (see scheme in Figure 1). The project was developed in a chemistry

Stage 1: Problem Statement

The problem or scenario to inquire about was an exploration of food as everyday context for recognizing their chemical components by discovering the elements or compounds and their health benefits. The problem was posed by pupils as a question: Which chemical elements can be found in food? Stage 2: Data Collection

First, pupils were encouraged to investigate the topic by gathering information from different sources within learning resources or tools that are readily available to the pupils. Two learning strategies were used by students: a search on the Internet and the interview. Students searched the Internet individually to link a chemical element with food. The students should gather quality information from the Internet judging its accuracy and establishing that the information came from a reliable and appropriate source. Previously, the pupils had had the opportunity to evaluate other Web site contents since they had been trained in this task of considering different criteria for audience, authority, accuracy, objectivity, or currency.23 One problem in this search was the difficulty of knowing the chemical form (chemical element or compound) in which the element was in the food since most of the Web sites indicated only the name of the element. Another learning strategy used by some pupils was to ask family members or neighbors who were working as health professionals, which allowed them to access, in some cases, specific books on the subject.

Figure 1. Teaching−learning approach to study the chemical elements.

class in 2016 with a sample of 26 ninth-grade students from an urban high school in Málaga (Spain). The educational aims for students were as follows: (i) to research and identify the chemical elements present in the food, and (ii) to remember the names and symbols of the chemical elements, recognizing them in everyday life. Choice of Context

Previous papers have shown how the house21 or the car18 can be excellent daily life contexts to familiarize students with the periodic table because many of the chemical elements can be found in these contexts. In this occasion, food is the chosen context for several reasons. Food is a proper context for secondary students since caring for a good diet is essential to lay the foundations for healthy lifestyle habits. These habits (both good and bad) are shaped during adolescence and will point the way that the adult will follow throughout his life. The World Health Organization’s (WHO)22 latest report shows that most diseases in the more developed countries have their origin in inappropriate eating habits, inadequate physical activity, and smoking habits. In this way, knowing aspects of food chemistry could influence decision-making to lead to healthy lifestyle habits. Finally, from the chemical point of view, foods are made up of different natural chemical compounds (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral salts, or water) to which could be added artificial ones (additives, colorings, preservatives). Therefore, all we eat is a mixture of chemical compounds, which will allow pupils to study these elements and learn their effects on health.

Stage 3: Analysis

Brainstorming Session. Second, a brainstorming session was held to compare results. Each pupil explained the information found on the Internet, and more approriate or usual chemical elements for each food were chosen for representation on the mural. Some of the best-known chemical elements, such as iron, promoted a debate in the class due to the simplicity of finding a wide set of foods that were rich in those elements on the Internet. In this case, the students had a list of 16 iron-rich foods (red meat, lentils, beans, poultry, fish, leafy vegetables, watercress, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, blackstrap molasses, spinach, mussels, liver, iron fortified cereals, egg yolk), so they had to choose the most appropriate. The criterion used by the students was that the information was B



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available in several highly reliable web pages. The students considered Wikipedia24 and WebMD25 as good examples of objective and accurate health information. The reasons given were that the data provided for iron by Wikipedia were backed by other scientific studies, while the WebMD health Web site had the URAC’s accreditation, which confirmed that WebMD had made a strong and voluntary commitment to provide quality health information. Topics Studied in Class. The information gathered was organized in categories. This also allowed the use of an inquirybased approach to study some issues related to some uses of the elements in food, helping the students make connections with new learning and prior learning. Students established four food categories according to the role of the chemical element present in the food: 1. Major elements. This category includes food providing the body with major elements or chemical elements making up more than 0.1% by weight of a food and performing functions in the body. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, or chlorine are major elements. Carbon is an important element in food since this element is the main component of all organic compounds present in food. 2. Essential trace elements. This category includes food providing the body with chemical elements as trace elements because of their essentiality and very limited quantity in humans (trace elements make up less than 0.1% by weight, 100 ppm, of a food). Boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, vanadium, or zinc are trace elements. 3. Toxic trace elements. This group includes food providing trace elements which are not usually found in the body and could become toxic, such as lithium, aluminum, nickel, germanium, arsenic, rubidium, strontium, cadmium, antimony, barium, lead, gold, or silver. 4. Chemical food preservation. This category includes all foods whose preservation is carried out chemically due to the presence of certain elements or chemical compounds such as protective atmospheres (nitrogen or argon), additives, or food colorings. Additionally, a fifth category was established by grouping the chemical elements that were part of the refrigerator. Some examples of chemical elements found in food in each category are provided in Table 1. An exhaustive list can be accessed in the Supporting Information. One important idea that the teacher should emphasize to students is that the indicated chemical element for each food is not the only component in most cases, and in many of them, this element is forming a chemical compound. Furthermore, the teacher insisted that a distinction between major or trace elements be made considering a total composition of a food or substance. For instance, iron is a major element in magnetite but a trace element in toothpaste. Another point of interest is that trace elements can play extremely important roles in biological functions. Certain trace elements are required for functioning of our human body, while others can be toxic. In biological systems, copper, iron, manganese, or selenium, for instance, are bound to proteins forming metalloproteins and participate in redox reactions. Regarding the chemical preservation of food, the use of additives in food and gases

Table 1. Examples of Chemical Elements in Food Food

Chemical Elements

Major Elements Cola drink Carbon as CO2 Water, fruits, vegetables Oxygen and hydrogen as H2O High-protein foods (meat, fish) Nitrogen in proteins Fish, cheese, dry fruits Phosphorus Milk products, chickpeas, beans Calcium Essential Trace Elements Clams, oysters, onion Cobalt Potatoes, chocolate Copper Onion Iodine Lentils, mussels, red meat, beans, liver, Iron iron fortified cereals, spinach Salmon, lean meat, seafood Zinc Toxic Trace Elements Tomatoes Lithium Potatoes Aluminum Kiwi, oyster Nickel Asparagus, black tea Rubidium Water in house with lead pipes Lead Chemical Food Preservation Silver foil Aluminum Protective atmosphere in fruits and Nitrogen, argon vegetables Canned food Tin Yogurt Titanium as titanium oxide, a food additive (E171) of white color Body of Refrigerator Metallic structure of refrigerator Iron and zinc

such as nitrogen or argon to create protective atmospheres in prepared products or vegetables was indicated. To sum up, the learning strategies that were highlighted in the analysis phase were making a list, asking questions in the brainstorming session, explaining and describing ideas with many details, contrasting ideas, or making decisions. Stage 4: Conclusions

The next step was to draw some conclusions. Among them, students emphasized the need to secure a well-balanced diet providing the working body with the essential elements and avoiding foods with toxic chemical elements. Dissemination

In addition, a final stage (construction of a large mural) was included to disseminate the chemical elements learning combining context, inquiry-based teaching, mural, and AR. Stage 1: Construction of a Large Mural

Finally, students made the mural (Figure 2) representing all foods in a refrigerator and indicating the chemical elements they contained by linking them to QR codes. This mural was exhibited in the school’s laboratory. The goals of this task were to show other pupils how chemistry is present in everyday life facilitating the learning of the chemical elements and instructing other students. Stage 2: Choice of Audio QR Codes as AR Tool

The hyperlinks in the physical world are the most basic level of AR, and quick response (QR) codes are included in this group.20 QR codes are similar to an AR marker in appearance but are in two dimensions and allow the customer to visualize the product via a more direct and interactive way. This system has the advantage of large information capacity and allows C



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Figure 2. Mural made by students.

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RESULTS To know the starting level of students regarding the presence of chemical elements in food we ask them to say in which objects, materials, or substances they could find chemical elements. The results obtained coincide with other studies which show that the main examples are linked with everyday objects, showing food as minority items among examples where students could find chemical elements.27 The most cited examples of food were potassium in bananas, calcium in milk, and iron in lentils. To know the effectiveness of the project we ask students two questions at two moments, before and after of the project, as pretest and post-test, respectively. Pupils were asked to identify chemical elements specifically in food in the first question with the statement “Chemical elements are not only found in the materials and objects that make up nature, but also in food. Indicate a maximum of 10 foods in which we can find chemical elements and which they are”. The teacher indicated to the students that names and symbols of the chemical elements should be written. The second question was intended to raise awareness of whether the intake of chemical elements in the food was beneficial or harmful to health. The statement proposed was “Do you think that the intake of foods with chemical elements is beneficial or harmful to health? Indicate five beneficial and harmful effects”.

storage of a variety of contents (links, texts, SMS, e-mail, phone numbers, geolocations, videos, audios, etc.), which offers great potential for use in chemistry education. We will use QR codes in this project because they are so easy to create and use, and there is also the possibility of modifying, or not, the information contained in the code (dynamic QR and static QR, respectively). Another advantage is that QR codes are license free and can be freely generated online, which has allowed QR code use to be increased considerably in our society in recent years. In addition, Bonifácio’s work26 showed the utility of audio QR codes to study the periodic table. Audio QR codes were created in English and Spanish so students could practice their oral skills in English by recording their explanations. An example of an audio QR code for the iron element contained in food is shown in Figure 3. Finally, some learning strategies used by pupils in the dissemination were reviewing information, planning the content of the audio recordings, using ICT tools, or cooperating with others.

Identification of Chemical Elements in Food

Results of the first question in pretest and post-test are shown in Table 2. We can observe that, before carrying out the project and in spite of insisting that foods contain chemical elements, students only related the elements with five foods: milk products, bananas, lentils, water, and salt (Table 2). These are examples that are common to other studies where we ask students the

Figure 3. Quick response code for the audio description of the ́ ́ element iron in food: “Hierro, simbolo quimico Fe. Las lentejas y los mejillones tienen una gran cantidad de hierro.” (“Iron, chemical symbol Fe. Lentils and mussels have a great amount of iron.”) D



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Table 2. Frequency of Students in the Identification of Chemical Elements in Food in Pretest and Post-Test Frequency of Students Identifying These Elements, N = 26

a

Food

Chemical Element

Pretest

Post-Test

Milk products Banana Lentils Water Salt Fish Fruit juices Meat Cereals Mussels Medicines Sports drink Seafood Nuts High-level gastronomy Vegetables

Ca K Fe H, O, Naa Na, I P I Fe Fe Fe Fe, Zn Na P P Au Mg Total

15 14 10 9 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56

23 17 13 16 11 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 98

Figure 4. Results for the question about effects on health of the intake of food with chemical elements.

The main answer was that the intake of food with chemical elements produces in some cases benefits and in others does not, which shows that students had previous knowledge regarding the relationship between food and chemical elements and health. We can observe an important change in the posttest where students make a more positive rating for both effects on health. In this case, the percentage of students increased from 46% (pretest) to 61% (post-test). In both cases, the beneficial effects on health always get better percentages than the harmful ones. The chi-square test was performed to analyze whether significant differences in the four types of responses (Figure 4) result from the application of the experience. This test showed significant differences (χ2 = 8.44; p < 0.05) between the pretest and post-test, with students mentioning both effects on health in a greater degree. However, no significant differences were detected in pretest and post-test justifications, even though a wider variety of responses were found in the post-test in all cases. Justifications given by students about beneficial effects on health are shown in Table 3.

This element was only found in the post-test.

presence of chemical elements in different substances.27 After completing the project, these five foods remain the majority of responses, making up 80% of the answers given. However, in the post-test the students cited 11 new foods, although only done in a minority way with a frequency between 1 and 4 times. Among them, iron was cited in four different foods (meat, cereals, mussels, and medicines). Regarding water as food, in the post-test some students specified also sodium apart from hydrogen and oxygen, probably because of its presence on the mineral water label. In addition, two of the students cited water contained in fruits. For students, sodium is the representative chemical element in salt in all cases, forgetting chlorine. A couple of students also drew attention to iodine in salt, probably because they have seen iodized salt at home or supermarkets. Most students indicated adequately the names and chemical symbols related to the food in the pretest and post-test because the purpose of the task was to recall the periodic table already studied in previous courses. Although the chi-square test showed no significant differences between the pretest and post-test, this finding should be considered important since the total frequency of students identifying chemical elements in food (with names and symbols) in the post-test practically doubled with respect to the pretest.

Table 3. Beneficial Effects on Health Frequency of Students Identifying Beneficial Effects on Health, N = 26

Effects on Health of Food Intake with Chemical Elements

The second question demanded students take a position on whether the intake of food with chemical elements produced a beneficial or harmful effect on health, giving some justifications in both directions. The pie chart in Figure 4 shows the pretest data on the outside and the post-test data on the inside. In both the pretest and post-test, the same types of responses were found and were in the same order (food produces both beneficial and harmful effects on health, only beneficial effects are produced, only harmful impact are produced, and without answer), but in different percentages.

Justification

Pretest

Post-Test

Some foods help growth or build some body parts Some beneficial elements are cited Foods supply energy to our body Foods as a way to prevent illnesses Some foods are good in small amounts Drinking water is essential to life Without answer

14 4 3 2 0 0 3

11 5 3 3 1 1 2

A majority of students based their justifications on the health benefits of the chemical elements provided by foods, mainly indicating that some foods help growth. Although some examples were given by pupils (calcium from milk, potassium in bananas, or iron in lentils), students only indicated the function of calcium to strengthen bones. In fact, the other given E



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codes) can produce a positive effect on the teaching−learning of the chemical elements because this teaching approach allows students to construct their own learning producing motivation in them. In addition, the strategies used have not only allowed an approach for chemistry to the students’ everyday life through food, but also worked in the classroom as transversal aspects of this matter through its relation with health. This could help improve the healthy lifestyles of pupils. The inquiry-based approach combined with the dissemination of results in a large mural has allowed students to cooperate with each other, contributing and contrasting ideas and making decisions, important competences in the learning of chemistry. Finally, the introduction of an augmented reality tool (audio QR codes) in the final product allows other students to become interested in the results by using a smart phone in education.

examples do not help growth and have another role in the organism. Thus, students ignore the role of potassium to reduce blood pressure or iron to prevent anemia. Other pupils indicated the names of the elements that are beneficial to the organism. They are precisely the same elements given in Table 2 (calcium, potassium, iron, or sodium). Minority answers were associated with energy supply or prevention of illnesses. Table 4 presents the justifications given by students about harmful effects on health. Table 4. Harmful Effects on Health Frequency of Students Identifying Harmful Effects on Health, N = 26 Justification

Pretest

Post-Test

Food intake could cause illnesses or internal damage Food intake with noble and heavy metals Excessive intake of the same food Food intake in contact with cleaning products Eating expired food Some foods could cause allergic reactions Without answer

15 6 2 0 0 0 3

8 11 2 1 1 1 2

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

The Supporting Information is available on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00218. Exhaustive list of examples of chemical elements found in food (PDF, DOCX) Elements in food concept inventory (PDF, DOCX)

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As in the previous case, the students offered more varied answers after their participation in the project. The majority responses that referred to harmful aspects had two reasons. On one hand, their intake could cause diseases, and on the other hand, students thought that only noble metals such as silver or gold and heavy metals (lead or mercury) contained in some foods could be harmful to health. This category was the majority in the post-test. Some students indicated that these metals were only harmful if they are consumed in excess, while others noted that these elements are not digested by the organism. Other students pointed out that excessive consumption of any food is harmful, and for example eating too much meat could accumulate a lot of iron in the body. The minority responses, especially those related to expired food, are interesting because students are aware that deterioration of food could also produce changes in the chemical element, either in its oxidation state or in the formation of some compound.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. ORCID

Antonio Joaquín Franco-Mariscal: 0000-0002-8704-6065 Notes

The author declares no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work is part of the “I+D Excelencia” project “Development and evaluation of scientific competences through contextbased and modelling teaching approaches. Case studies” (EDU2013-41952-P), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Finance through its 2013 research call.

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Elements in Food Concept Inventory

REFERENCES

(1) Franco-Mariscal, A. J.; Oliva-Martínez, J. M.; Blanco-López, A.; España-Ramos, E. A Game-Based Approach To Learning the Idea of Chemical Elements and Their Periodic Classification. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (7), 1173−1190. (2) Franco-Mariscal, A. J.; Oliva-Martínez, J. M.; Bernal-Márquez, S. Una revisión bibliográfica sobre el papel de los juegos didácticos en el ́ estudio de los elementos quimicos. Primera parte: Los juegos al servicio del conocimiento de la Tabla Periódica. [A Literature Review on the Role of Educational Games in the Study of the Chemical Elements. Part I: Games for Knowledge of the Periodic Table.]. Educ. Quim. 2012, 23 (3), 338−345. (3) Franco-Mariscal, A. J.; Oliva-Martínez, J. M.; Bernal-Márquez, S. Una revisión bibliográfica sobre el papel de los juegos didácticos en el ́ estudio de los elementos quimicos. Segunda parte: Los juegos al servicio de la comprensión y uso de la Tabla Periódica. [A Literature Review on the Role of Educational Games in the Study of the Chemical Elements. Second Part: The Games in the Service of Understanding and Use of the Periodic Table.]. Educ. Quim. 2012, 23 (4), 474−481.

Students’ responses to open-ended essay questions on the pretest and post-test assessment were examined to design a proposal of concept inventory (see the Supporting Information) helping teachers to research student misconceptions. This concept inventory could be used by teachers as a diagnostic test for assessing conceptual understanding of the chemical elements in food. The distractors (or incorrect or irrelevant answers) chosen by students will help researchers understand student thinking and give instructors insights into students’ prior knowledge (and, sometimes, firmly held beliefs). Consequently, further studies with the concept inventory need to be undertaken to strengthen these results.

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CONCLUSIONS The results seem to show that the combined use of the four strategies (context, inquiry-based teaching, murals, and QR F



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(25) WebMD. Iron-Rich Foods. http://www.webmd.com/diet/ironrich-foods#1 (accessed Nov 2017). (26) Bonifácio, V. D. B. QR-Coded Audio Periodic Table of the Elements: A Mobile-Learning Tool. J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89 (4), 552− 554. (27) Franco-Mariscal, A. J. El juego educativo como recurso didáctico ́ en la enseñanza de la clasificación periódica de los elementos quimicos en Educación Secundaria [The Educational Game as a Didactic Resource for Teaching the Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements in Secondary Education]. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain, 2011.

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