In the Classroom
Doing Science and Asking Questions II: An Exercise That Generates Questions Catherine Hurt Middlecamp* Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706; *
[email protected] Anne-Marie L. Nickel Physics and Chemistry Department, Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI 53202
It is not the answer that enlightens but the question. Eugene Ionesco Questions lie at the heart of any scientific investigation. Given the importance of questions in science, one might argue that those who teach chemistry should pay attention to helping students learn to ask questions as well as helping them learn to answer them. Similarly, instructors might attend to the type of questions that their students ask, and they might examine the type of questions asked by different groups of people, such as those in industry, government, or the wider society. At the very least, instructors might aim to strike some sort of balance between the attention given to answering and asking questions. However, from our combined experiences (as both instructors and students), we observe that instructors in firstyear chemistry courses typically ask more of the questions than do the students. For example, instructors sometimes pose questions to see how well students understand a topic or to more actively involve students in the learning process. Instructors may ask students to investigate a particular question in the laboratory. They may give students “challenge questions” to work through in groups. Students may have to answer questions from the textbooks as part of their homework assignments. And, of course, instructors ask dozens of questions on quizzes and exams. Asking questions sometimes goes hand-in-hand with a particular pedagogical approach for engaging students in the tasks of learning. For example, the recent ChemLinks modules begin with interest-catching questions such as Build a Better CD Player: How Can You Get Blue Light From a Solid? or Would You Like Fries With That? The Fuss About Fats in Our Diet (1). Similarly, Chemistry in Context, a project of the American Chemical Society now in its fifth edition, asks students to reflect on personal questions as they begin to work on real-world issues (2). For example, the chapter on nuclear energy begins, “Would you be more willing to live near a nuclear power plant or near a coal-burning power plant? Give reasons to support your answer.” (2). Questions also play an important role in inquiry-based instruction, in discovery labs, and in case studies. One can hardly pick up an issue of this Journal without finding articles that help instructors engage students in the questions of science. Truly the tendency to ask questions is deeply woven into our very psyche as teachers. No matter which pedagogical approach taken, probably no single reason explains why we, as teachers, tend to ask more questions than do our students. However, we can speculate. One possibility is that we readily assume the role of “question-asker,” given our position of authority in the classwww.JCE.DivCHED.org
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room. Another possibility is that, for one reason or another, we tend to limit the number of questions our students can ask. For example, if we perceive student questions to be an inefficient use of our limited class time, we then may do little to encourage them. If we fear that their questions will unmask our lack of understanding about a topic, we may not allow many questions. Even if we want to empower students to raise their own questions, we simply may not be very skillful at creating a classroom environment in which this will happen. Thus, for whatever combination of factors, our students may only have limited opportunities to raise (and learn from) their own questions. Instructors do, of course, build in time for students to ask questions. For example, it is a common classroom practice to pause and ask, “Does anybody have any questions?” Another common practice is to conduct a review session driven by student questions before an exam. Instructors may even have students ask and answer their own questions as part of a research symposium or have them construct and answer their own question on an exam. However, while these teaching practices elicit certain types of questions (especially those relating to clarification of content), they may not bring forth either as many questions, as great a variety of questions, or as thoughtful questions as an instructor might desire. Indeed, questions—both our own and those of others— present challenges to us. In the first paper of this series, we described a classroom exercise that gave students the opportunity to raise their own questions and answer them (3). This exercise was set in the context of “doing introductions” on the first day of class. Rather than having each student introduce him or herself, class members first collaborated on a list of questions for all to answer using check marks. Each question was written on the board. For example, students asked each other, “What outdoor activities do you like?” where the choices were “roller blading, hockey, soccer, ultimate frisbee, biking, skiing, volleyball, all, or none”. Once the boards were full of questions (with choices to pick for answers), all students got up to check off their responses. The entire class could then view the tallies. The power of the exercise lies in its multiple agendas. It can be used to illustrate these salient points: 1. Questions are not necessarily objective or neutral (their content depends on who is asking them). 2. The format of the question is not neutral either (how you ask something determines what you can learn). 3. Groups of people often develop a better set of questions than individuals (an inherent rationale for group diversity). 4. By their content and form, the questions asked by scientists can limit what is learned in a scientific investigation.
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Questions also can challenge us to examine our profession and its cultural norms. The exercise just referenced can be useful in generating discussion among faculty about the categories they favor or tend to omit. For example, this exercise has catalyzed discussion among science instructors seeking to change what they teach and how they teach it. In leading the exercise, a faculty member reported that the questionwriting process “can be very illuminating, as it brings into question the ‘naturalness’ of our categories, and hints that categories we have taken for granted as natural may in fact be constructed”(4). Indeed, doing science should include raising questions about the categories we use in our disciplines, our sub-disciplines and, of course, in the topics of our courses. No category is without its consequences in terms of what is included or excluded. Instructors may wish to build on themes relating to questions throughout the semester, especially if they have opened the class with an exercise such as the one referenced above. This paper provides another example of an exercise that engages students in asking their own questions. It has been classroom-tested in multiple formats and easily can be customized to fit the needs of different instructional contexts. We first describe the exercise and how it was applied in a large introductory chemistry class. We next offer suggestions to instructors about using the exercise, including several variations applicable to different topics in general chemistry. Finally, we cast these questions in the larger context of pedagogy, seeing how the very nature and types of questions we ask can tell us something about what we (and our students) can learn. Exercise Overview: Student-Generated Questions This exercise asks students to engage in a process of creating questions. First, students are given a scenario. Working in groups, they then prepare a list of questions that one of the characters in the scenario should ask prior to taking some action. Participants in the exercise are then debriefed, and
everyone gets to examine the questions asked and to search for questions missed. In our experience, handing out an object (a “chemical prop”) to each group of 3–5 students serves to focus the discussion. Thus, instructors may want to prepare a set of objects such as small bottles of chemicals, samples of polymers, pieces of metal, or a set of batteries. Figure 1 depicts an inexpensive (and nontoxic) example. If the students are doing the exercise in a large lecture hall, giving each group an object may lend cohesion to the group. Although the exercise stands alone for one-time use, an instructor can build on the theme of “asking questions” by repeating it over the course of a semester, each time changing the characters, the chemical prop (if used) and chemical principles involved. Process for the Exercise
Prior to Class Draft a scenario to accompany your exercise. Plan logistically for its use with a large group (for example, in a lecture hall) or with a smaller group (in a discussion or laboratory section). If providing students with written materials will facilitate the process, prepare these in advance. If the exercise is for laboratory use, consider including it in the laboratory manual as done by one of the authors (CHM). During Class Prepare the Class for the Exercise Divide the class into groups of 3–5 students and, if desired, pass out the chemical props. To the greatest extent possible, make sure that the physical setup allows group members to easily interact with each other. Describe the Exercise to the Students Assuming that the exercise would be used to generate questions of safety prior to the first lab experiment, we offer a sample description: As a new student in Chemistry 101, you may be wondering how to prepare for laboratory each week. Each week before you come to lab, you should consider questions of safety and find any needed answers. Today’s exercise will help you generate a list of helpful questions that relate to laboratory safety. In a moment, each group will get a sample of a chemical. These are not the actual chemicals that you will use in lab, as you probably can tell by looking at them. For the sake of this exercise, however, act as if the chemical in the bottle were one that you would use in the lab experiment next Monday. Please do not open the bottles. Now the task: What questions might you ask about this chemical before using it in the lab? For example, one question you might ask is “Is it flammable?”
Figure 1. Small plastic bottles as “chemical props”. Each bottle contains a nontoxic liquid or solid that can serve as a focal point for group discussion. Depending on the scenario, the chemicals may need different appearances. Samples pictured here are copper wires, dish detergent, chardonnay (left to right) and salt (center); the pen is for scale.
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Students immediately may ask “What is it?” This, of course, is a reasonable question because (with the exception of laboratory unknowns) all reagents should be in labeled containers. In answering this question, explain for the purposes of this exercise that students should think generically
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about laboratory safety. Explain that you want them to come up with questions to consider about any laboratory chemical prior to handling it. Explain that if they think broadly now at the outset, they may better recognize the questions that apply to safely handling a specific chemical in the future. Set the Parameters of the Exercise Challenge each group to list at least a dozen questions that one might ask about this chemical before using it. Tell students that they will need to report back with their list of questions in five minutes (adjust the time as needed). One group member should record the list; another should report the results to the whole class. As appropriate (you may have already stated this at other times and places), explain the rationale for working in groups; namely, that this way students are likely to prepare a more extensive list of questions. Conduct the Exercise If you are providing students with written materials, distribute these to the groups. As needed, offer help if groups get stuck at any point. Reassemble as a Class and Debrief Ask the group participants to share their questions. We have found that it works well to take one question from each group, repeating this until the groups run out of questions. If possible, display the questions so that all can view them. Actual examples of questions posed by our students are given in Table 1. The time required for debriefing depends on your educational goals. Even with a large group, debriefing can take as little as 10 minutes. As time permits, you may want to add in equal parts of content, personal stories, and humor. In this case, you easily can spend 30 minutes. For example, you may embellish the question “What if I spill it?” with personal anecdotes of all the different ways students have spilled chemicals over the years (and the resulting safety precautions that you and others developed as a result). If you lack stories, you may find that your students have ones from their own lives. And, of course, if no student raised the question of what to do if the chemical gets spilled (on the bench top, in somebody’s lap, or on a notebook), this is your opportunity to add the question to the list. Another way to debrief is to help students recognize the categories into which questions fall. For example, in the case of using a particular laboratory chemical, which questions relate to personal safety? Which relate to questions of safety in the larger community? Which connect chemistry to other fields such as economics, business, or politics? Again, the emphasis you choose depends on the role you want questions to play in student learning. With experience, you will come to know which questions tend to be missed. For example, we have noticed that students forget to ask what happens to a chemical when it goes down the drain. They also may forget to ask whether a chemical can be recycled. Students, of course, are not the only ones who may neglect to ask these questions. Indeed, one of us (CHM) as an undergraduate back in the 1960s remembers asking her teaching assistant whether the solutions of lead ion went down the drain into a nearby beautiful lake. At the time, her question was not taken seriously. These days, www.JCE.DivCHED.org
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however, we all must address questions of disposal. Similarly, questions about using particular chemicals while pregnant or trying to become pregnant now are taken very seriously. Even with many years experience doing this particular laboratory exercise, we find that new questions keep emerging. For example, these two questions initially caught us by surprise: “Who made the chemical?” and “Was anybody poisoned in the process?” Both are excellent questions, although admittedly may be only of limited value for your course. For example, you can refer to the manufacture of tetraethyl lead where the failure to address the toxicity of the compound had fatal consequences for those in the workforce. Depending on your learning goals, you may want to explore the economic, environmental, and political consequences of not finding answers to particular questions. Finally, you can discuss what questions people might have forgotten to ask. One might be “Are there any unintended negative consequences of using the chemical in lab?” Point out that scientists and engineers struggle with this question as well. For example, in a recent issue of Chemical and
List 1. Student-Generated Questions about an Unknown
Questions one might ask before using a particular chemical in the laboratory. •
Is it toxic? Is it explosive? Is it flammable?
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What if my neighbor spills some on me?
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How expensive is it?
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If I use it up can I get some more?
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Is it absorbed through my skin?
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How do I dispose of it? Can I put it down the drain?*
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Where does it come from?
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Can I put it in a plastic beaker?
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What is the least amount I can use?*
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Does this chemical react with my skin or clothes?
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Is it one thing or is it more than one?
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Who made it? How was it transported here? Was this chemical shipped by air?
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Does it require any special handling? Is it stored at room temperature?
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Is it affected by sunlight?
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What do I do if I feel sick after using it in the lab?*
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What happens to it after it goes down the drain?
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Will information about the chemical be on the test?
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Does it matter if I’m pregnant?*
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Was somebody exploited or poisoned in the process of manufacturing this chemical?
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Was it manufactured using the principles of “green chemistry”?*
*Questions that may not be asked, but might be useful to have students consider asking.
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Engineering News (5), Vicki L. Colvin describes the “wowto-yuck trajectory.” She notes that people herald a new technology and its benefits, only to later discover unintended negative consequences. In the C & EN article, Colvin raises questions about possible health risks of nanotechnology. Similarly, a recent article in Science points out that the U.S. Congress wants to find answers to questions about the social, economic, and environmental impacts of nanotechnology (6). Although the fearful, self-replicating nanorobots of Michael Crichton are still in the realm of science fiction (7), finding the right questions to ask about a new technology is of utmost importance. Early in their careers, students can be encouraged to search for such questions as well. Variations on the Question-Generating Exercise
Water Quality Describe that a local brewery is planning to produce a new beverage. Given a water sample, what questions should
List 2. Student-Generated Questions about Plastic
Questions one might ask before producing a plastic bottle cap. •
Will it be tough enough to stand up as a bottle cap?
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Will the cap leak chemicals into the beverage?*
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Is the cap biodegradable?
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Would the final product be permeable to CO2? Would it be permeable to O ? 2
the brewmeister ask before using the water to launch into production?
Drugs Using a pill prop, describe the pill as a non-steroidal drug prescribed to an elderly patient in a nursing home for pain control. Ask them to list the questions that need to be answered before the patient receives a dose. Note: if your scenario involves testing a drug on human subjects, be sure to teach the question “Do I need to get approval from my institutional review board before I proceed?” Plastics Tell students that they are chemical engineers directing the manufacture of plastic bottle tops used on milk jugs. The chemical in the bottle is a starting material. What questions should they ask about the final product before putting the chemical into production? Variation: The chemical is a plasticizer or a coloring agent. Sample student responses to the plastics exercise are tabulated in Table 2. The starred ones might be useful to point out if students don’t raise them. Nuclear Chemistry Describe how a radioisotope is being injected for diagnostic purpose. For any radioisotope used internally, what questions need to be asked before utilizing it? Consider both questions of risk and questions of benefit. Variation involving nuclear terrorism: A dirty bomb has been dropped. What questions immediately should be asked about the radioisotope that has been dispersed? Electrochemistry Describe how a battery is going to be implanted to power a pacemaker for somebody’s heart. What questions should be asked about the battery before implanting it? Note: as samples, friends with hearing aids can supply you with tiny batteries that they have discarded.
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Can I recycle the cap together with the bottle?*
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Is the plastic UV-sensitive?
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Will the cap crack in the cold of winter? Melt in the backseat of a car?
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Is the cap shatterproof? Heat stable?
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Will the cap be ugly? Can a color be added to it?
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Is the cap compatible with the bottle, in terms of expansion and contraction?
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How much does the starting material cost?
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How much does it cost to produce the cap?
Suggestions for Instructors
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What kinds of waste will be generated during its manufacture?
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Is it molded or injected?
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Is the starting material toxic to the workers who handle it?
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Can I imprint a prize message inside of this cap?
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Is the cap flammable? Will it give off noxious gases when incinerated?*
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Is the cap made in a sweatshop?
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Will the cap trap bacteria?
In our experience, students easily participate in this exercise. They seem to like it and can succeed at it. At times, though, a particular scenario just does not seem to catch their interest, perhaps because of the content, perhaps because of the time of day or perhaps for no reason in particular. A key factor appears to be integrating the exercise into the topic at hand. For example, if you are going to talk about the plasticizers used in PVC, the bottle cap scenario (“What should I think of before I add something to a plastic?”) is likely to work well. Whenever possible, tie the exercise to assessment. For example, if the question-generating exercise is part of preparing for a laboratory, offer credit for completing the exercise. Pick simple scenarios at first. Get feedback from students and continuously be willing to modify the scenario to get
*Questions that may not be asked, but might be useful to have students consider asking.
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Safety and Current Events Describe how members of an inspection team have located an unlabeled chemical in an abandoned warehouse. What questions do the investigators need answered?
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the type of questions and the group dynamics that you are hoping for. Try variations other than working in groups. For example, Figure 2 offers an essay question that was used successfully for several semesters. Figure 3 offers a possible exam question. Watch out for your own biases in what “counts” as a legitimate question. Our students sometimes ask questions that appear far afield from the task at hand, such as “Was the chemical produced in a sweat shop?” We have noted our tendency to respond “You are in a chemistry class. Ask chemistry questions”. Such a response, of course, does not do justice to the question asked. We also acknowledge our frustration with questions along the lines of “Will it be on the exam?” at the same time recognizing that our teaching system encourages our students to ask such questions. Also watch out for any tendency to answer all of the questions as they arise. Assuredly, some questions (those relating to laboratory safety) require an immediate answer. Most, however, can and should be left to the students to answer. No matter what the scenario, two questions are particularly useful: “What are we missing here?” and “Whose ideas or opinions are not being heard?” Another question mentioned in the next section also gives food for thought: “Because we can do something, should we do it?” Having looked at the specifics for implementing a question-creating exercise for classroom use, we now examine some of the larger issues involved with questions and the learning process. The Importance of Questions Our attention in this article has been on asking questions rather than on responding to the questions of others. But there is more to asking questions than simply getting learners to make a list of them. For a better understanding of the power of questions, we can turn to pedagogical approaches that emphasize the importance of asking questions. For example, feminist and other alternative pedagogies (such as that of Paolo Freire) (9–12) are outspoken in the need for learners to ask questions. More specifically, these pedagogies assert that: 1. Learners are more likely to have a personal interest in the questions they raise.
Students may ask personal questions such as, “Are tanning booths harmful?” and “Is irradiated food safe to eat?” Helping students find answers to questions such as these allows instructors to discuss radiation (electromagnetic and nuclear) in a context that is both relevant and meaningful. Instead of telling students that chemistry connects to the world in which they live, questions are used to build the connections. 2. Questions can serve as entry points for issues relating course content to ethnicity and gender.
Let us revisit the tanning booth question from the previous item. When teaching about UV radiation, tanning was a topic that we discussed only in passing. Year after year, though, our students asked questions about tanning beds. For example, one of us (CHM) holds a poster session in which
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students ask and answer a question of their choice. Not a semester has passed without at least one poster entitled “Are Tanning Beds Safe?” being presented. As we paid more attention to questions about tanning and skin cancer, we noticed that women—in particular women with white skin—were the ones asking the questions. To turn this around, no women (or men) with highly pigmented skin had asked any questions about tanning beds. Similarly, these students didn’t ask about skin cancer or about how sunscreens work. As comparative skin cancer rates for African-Americans are low (13), this trend in who is asking the questions makes sense. This trend also suggests that we not speak about tanning as if the question were of equal interest to all present in the lecture hall.
A recent New York Times article reported that a “radioactive isotope of cesium” was found at an ammunition manufacturing and storage plant in Iraq during the search for unconventional weapons. What questions need to be asked about the cesium that was found?
Figure 2. Sample essay topic (8) based on asking questions.
Suppose you just have been handed a sample of a plastic that is to be used in the manufacture of bottle caps for 2-liter soda bottles. The material is light in mass, ivory in color, and is formed into small beads that easily can be molded into a variety of shapes. Like many polymers, the sample is insoluble in water and reasonably strong and resistant to the types of chemical compounds found in beverages. As a company engineer, your task is to decide what questions to ask before you give the “official OK” to manufacture bottle caps out of this plastic. For example, one obvious question to ask would be, “How much does this plastic cost?” It would make little sense to put 50¢ bottle caps on a beverage that markets for $1.25. Don’t use this particular question; rather, come up with at least 10 questions of your own. After you have brainstormed a list of questions, group them into categories. In your essay, first introduce the reader to the situation and note why it is important for one to think before plunging headlong into the manufacture of an item. You might note other products where people forgot to consider particular questions before manufacturing them. In the remaining paragraphs, describe each category of questions you would want to consider before manufacturing the bottle caps, referencing the table you constructed. Conclude by mentioning how you might expand your list of questions. Note: if you don’t consult a diverse group of people, you won’t get a diverse list of questions. Figure 3. Sample exam question based on asking questions.
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However, certain questions relating to UV are of interest to people with darker skin, such as how to make enough vitamin D, especially in northern climates. Students also had questions about vitamin D deficiencies in women of any skin color who had to wear garments covering their bodies for religious or cultural reasons. Again, depending on who is in your class, students may have questions that are a complex mix of chemical, cultural, and social factors, and some are not of equal interest to all groups of people. The same, of course, is true for the questions that scientists ask. 3. Questions give control to the person who asked them.
The balance of power shifts towards the student when he or she asks a question. A four-frame cartoon from Peanuts in which Peppermint Patty and Marcie are chatting in the elementary school classroom captures the dynamics between teacher and student quite nicely. Says Peppermint Patty, “I have it all figured out, Marcie…”. She continues in the next frame, “The way I see it, there seem to be more questions than there are answers.” “So?” queries Marcie in the third frame. “So try to be the one who asks the questions!” Peppermint Patty asserts in the final frame (16). Most simply put, questions are controlling. By posing a question such as “What is pH?” an instructor takes control of the content to be explored. Similarly, a student can redirect the instructional flow by asking “Why are clear-colored sodas recommended to drink after you have had the stomach flu? Wouldn’t its acidity further upset your stomach?” Frankly, there are times when instructors may need or want to control what is going on. But this control needs to be balanced, leaving room for students to ask their own questions and to learn about questions that they may not have thought to ask. 4. Questions can challenge existing structures, categories, and norms.
If teaching is a subversive activity, then questions are one of the tools of subversion. At a recent chemical education symposium at one of our institutions, the dean pointed out that scientists and engineers are good at the question “How can we do something?” But, when scientists can do something, they are likely to miss the question, “Should we do it?” (14). This latter question challenges motives and may raise ethical concerns. It can make scientists more accountable for the uses to which their work is put. In our experience, asking questions about the nature of science is not necessarily either a part of doing science or of learning science. Helping students to learn to ask more and better questions may help change this. Summary Pedagogy and asking questions are intertwined. To the extent that we want a certain type of learning to take place in the classroom, and to the extent that we want to both teach science and examine the nature of science, we encourage students to raise questions of their own. We also can join them in the continuing search for questions that scientists and
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society may not have thought to ask. Ultimately, placing a greater emphasis on asking questions can be good for our students, for our profession, and perhaps even for our world. Acknowledgments For the past eight summers, the University of Wisconsin System Women in Science Curriculum Reform Institute (CRI) has highlighted scholarship relating to asking questions, rather than just answering the existing questions (15). We are indebted to the leaders and participants at the CRI for their many insights on this question exercise. The scenario of using water samples is credited to the CRI participants, inspired by a local brew pub on the Fox River in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Literature Cited 1. ChemLinks Coalition. http://chemlinks.beloit.edu/summary.html (accessed May 2005). 2. Eubanks, L. P.; Middlecamp, C.; Pienta, N.; Heltzel, C.; Weaver, G. Chemistry in Context: Applying Chemistry to Society, 5th ed.; McGraw-Hill: Dubuque, IA, 2006. 3. Middlecamp, C. H.; Nickel, A. L. J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 50. 4. Mayberry, M.; Subramaniam, B.; Weasel, L., Eds. Feminist Science Studies: A New Generation; Routledge: New York, 2001; p 161. 5. Dagani, R. Nanomaterials: Safe or Unsafe? Chem. Eng. News 2003, 81 (17), 30–33. 6. Malakoff, D. Congress Wants Studies of Nanotech’s ‘Dark Side’. Science 2003, 301 (5629), 27. 7. Crichton, M. Prey: A Novel; HarperCollins: New York, 2002. 8. Miller, J. U.S. Inspectors Find No Forbidden Weapons at Iraqi Arms Plant. New York Times Apr 16, 2003, p B1. 9. Freire, P. Pedagogy of the Oppressed; Continuum: New York, 2002. 10. Lederman, M.; Bartsch, I. The Gender and Science Reader; Routledge: New York, 2001. 11. Boxer, M. J. When Women Ask the Questions, Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD, 1998. 12. Middlecamp, C. H.; Subramanium, B. J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 520 (and references therein). 13. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program of the National Cancer Institute. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/ 1973_1999/melanoma.pdf (accessed May 2005). 14. Comment made by Philip Certain, Dean, College of Letters and Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison, May 3, 2003. 15. Middlecamp, C. On Campus with Women 2003, 32 (3–4), http://www.aacu.org/ocww/volume32_3/feature.cfm?section=2 (accessed May 2005). 16. Schulz, Charles M. In I Heard a D-Minus Call Me, New Owl Book ed.; H. Holt: New York, 1995. (Unpaged; originally published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston in two expanded editions under the titles Dr. Beagle and Mr. Hyde in 1981 and You're Weird, Sir! in 1982.)
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