A New Context for Schoolscience Robert E. Yager Science Education Center, The University of lowa, lowa City, IA 52242
Two years ago William Marshall (I)called for the introduction of a required general science course a t the l l t h and 12th grade level with a corresponding elimination of the science course usually required a t the 8th or 9th grade. He envisioned such a course as retaining the important knowledge of specialized courses currently offered. However, the new course would have two additional emphases: (1) it would deal with the benefits and dangers of science t o humanity and (2) i t would stress rationality in decision making. Marshall did not ron&r school science a r k s grade levrk. He clearlv saw the need for a"cuIt11rn11'8cience course in the l l t h a n d 12th grades and a corresponding reduction of a general cot~rsein the junior high school. He reviewed researrh that indirawd that students do not need specialized sriencr courses (i.e., chemistry, physics, advanced biolop).) for success in college scienn! and engineering. Marshall had reviewed the Drpnrtment of Educatiun and National Science i.'oundarinn rrnnrt to President Carter en~-~~ titled "Science and Engin~eringEducation fur the 19Rn's and Hevmd" 121.He used this reonrt as a rationale for the introduition ofhis new cultural sciknce in grades 11and 12. He also noted the popularity of new science magazines and television programs as evidence of increased interest in science among the eeneral oublic. Few have jmplemented the cultural science course Marshall described in the two years which have elapsed. However, the current time is one of excitement as new interest in and support for science education is emerging. After calling for the elimination of the Science Education Directorate and recommending a near zero budget for science education, the Reagan administration has reversed itself. A national emereencv has been nroclaimed and science education is once more a part of the federal agenda. A special commission appointed by the National Science Board issued its final report in September of 1983; it called for many specific correctives designed to make science education in the U.S. the best in the world by 1995. It called for the expenditure of $1.51 billion this year by the federal eovernment to reach this goal (3).Initiatives have advanced inevery smte with a most Gnificant appropriation prozrams in science in Florida of5200 million LO strencthrn . . . and mathematics. What has chanced the climate? One major cause for the turn around is thehfonnatiun concerning t h i critical shortage of science and mathematics wachers. Another cause has been reports nmcrrning the produrrinn of grrater numbers of scientistsand rngineersin theSoviet Union and other industrial nations. The puhlic and government leaders have also become alarmed at the greater rigor and timespent studying science and mathematics by students in most orhrr nations. Still another evidence of crisis has been the concerns of industry and the militam for t w frw "adtuluatelv" - oreoared . - hiah school graduates for these fields. ~ h e s e f o uarguments-ail r associated with numbers. international comnarisons, and disciplinelrigor- have csptured the attentiin of industrial and oolitical leaders as well as the eeneral oublic. Thrv have been the primary causes for the turn around in the renewed support for science education in 1984. Unfortunately, these are not the problems that have been identified bv careful and massive research and assessment efforts which were mounted in 1976 following serious challenges regarding the federal support for science education ~
~~
~~
.. -
694
Journal of Chemical Education
Thlrteen Programs Named by the National Science Teachers Association as Exemplars of an SITIS Conlext Pragram Name
2.
Solar Projects Class
3.
Contemporary Issues in Science
4.
Environmental Science
5.
Unified Science Curriculum for High School
6.
Energy and Us
7.
Mankind: A Biolagical/Social View
8.
Marine Environmental Pragram
9.
Walllngford Auditing Technical Team (WATT) (EnergyWaste)
10.
Science/Mathematicsl Computer Technology
11.
Energy. Land Use. Technology. and Natural Resources
12.
Human Ecology
13. Project Life Lab
Schwl Address Monte Sano Elementary I t 0 7 Monte Sano Blvd.. SE Huntsville. AL 35801 Toledo High Schwl Olalla Road Toledo. OR 97391 Susan E. Wagner High School 1200 Manor Road Staten Island. NY 10314 Scott High School 404 Riverside Drive Madison, WV 25130 Wassau West High Schwl 1200 West Waussau Avenue Waussau. WI 54401 Kelley Walsh High School 3500 East l a h SL Casper, WY 82609 Clarkstown South High Schaoi Damarest Mill Road West Nyack, NY 10994 QuilceneJr.-Sr. High Schwl P.O. Box 40 Ouilcene. WA 98376 Dr. Mark T. Sheehan High School Hope Hill Road Wallmgford,CT 06492 Gompers Secondary Center for Math/Science/Comp~fers 1005 47th St. San Diego, CA 92102 Jefferson County R-1 School Dislrict 1209 Ouail Street Lakewood. C 0 60215
Brandywine High School 1400 Foulk Road Wilmington, M 19803 Green Acres S c b l Live Oak Schwl District 966 Bastwick Lane Santa Crur. CA 95062
which began in 1957 following the launching of the Soviet Sputnik. Three large status studies ( 4 , 5 , 6 ) ,several large research studies (7-9) and massive synthesis studies (10-16) were funded to nrovide information for makine- decisions concerning the value of continuing support and attention. T o many the information that appeared in the early 80's is far more indicative of the real crisis than are the four pieces of information that have captured the interest and attention of industrial and political leaders as well as the general puhlic. Attracting more teachers (probably those less well-prepared and less interested in teaching and student learning) and mimicking science instruction in other nations are "solutions" being tried which are not likely to affect the real crises at all. A brief elaboration of some of the maior problems will emphasize the point: (1) There is a mismatch between the science curriculum found in schools and that which 90 per cent of the students want and need.
(2) Nearly all science teachers emphasize (90 per cent) goals for school science that are directed only toward preparing students for the next academic level (for further formal study of science)and yet most students will not study science beyond what is required. (3) Nearly all science teachers (99 per cent) have a philosophical orientation only toward a specific discipline of science. They have no concept of seience education as a discipline and no real understanding of students and how they learn or of the research dealing with instruction. (4) Over 90 per cent of all science teachers use a textbook 95 oer cent of the timi; hence, the textbook becomes the course outline,'the framework, the parameters for students experience, testing, and a world view of science. ( 5 ) There has been little or no attention to the development of a science curriculum in the schools. A curriculum is a continuing plan designed to meet objectives across the entire span of school (6) Laboratories are largely verifications of what students have been told in class or what they have read in textbooks; there is no evidence that students ever experience one real "experiment" throughout the school program. (7) Ninety per cent of all high school graduates are not scientifieally/technologicslly literate. Literacy was defined hy Voelker (13) to include (a) demonstrated interest in science, (h) demonstrated knowledge of central concepts, and (c)the ability to deepen interest and further knowledge on one's own. Further, Voelker and his colleagues found the school to he ineffective in influencine science interest. knowledee. or the further ourauit of~ either. ~ ~ (8) '%lost teaGhprs (by observedpradiceif not hy stated philosophy) new scienceau knowl~dgeto be master4 they want to know precidy what will be in a course and what knowledge they want to impart to students prior to working with them. (9) Science teaching is largely a matter of mastery of a new vocabulary; the numher of new wordslconceptsthat are presented are twice the number introduced when students learn a foreign language during a given year. Teachers tend to talk about words, test for them, and to assume that seience has been mastered when students can use a specialltechnical vocabulary. ~~~~~
eliminate specialized (discipline-oriented) science until the last two years when i t would be elective and recommended only for those aspiring to college study with a major in an area of science. The NSF group recommended a third year elective S/T/S course for most l l t h - and 12th-year students. The national panel summarized its recommendations for a K-12 curriculum for science education in the following manner:
.~~~ ~~~
Such problems as listed above need attention. However, there have been few moves for correctives a s our ~~~-elected leaders and the public in general call for specific solutions to the science education nrohlem(s). Too often there are merelv ~ ~ calls for "producing" more scikice teachers, for "requiring;' more of the same old science, for subsidizing persons preparing to teach and those desiring further preparation to stay in teachine. There is a general feeline that the exoenditure of funds w d make the problems disappear! However, real solutions to the serious problems elaborated above suggest a new context for school science. This context agrees with the rationale and to some degree the required l l t h and 12th grade cultural science course proposed by Marshall. However, such a focus must also be introduced throughout the school program. T h e Project Synthesis descriptio& of excellence in science teaching are appropriate for the K-12 spectrum. They suggest the following features for school science: ~
~~
~
~~~
~
~
~~
~
(1) Science must be presented and experienced in a social setting; (2) Applications of science (technology) must he central; most students will approach science through such applications; (3) Science must he community-based;the instructionslmaterials and the course outline must he locally relevant; (4) Science must be presented as a human enterprise with its multiple dimensions all considered in some manner in the school nromam: . ,. . (51 Science instruction should use insues as organizers-ap foci for study; values and ethics will he considered when such issues are approached; (6) Science knowledge will he derived from experience; no knowledge is so important that it must first be mastered for its own sake with the promise that it will he useful in the future. Prior to the final report of the NSB Commission report, a special panel of expens was assembled to study the "curriculum" issue. One of the must significant recommendations arising from the meeting was a call for a two year required SrTlS sequence for grades 9 and 10 ( 1 7 ) . This would all hut
Any consideration of K-12 curriculum must he driven by an understanding of the demands put on education in a democracy that is part of a complex technological world. There is a demand for scientific skills, attitudes, and knowledge. A technologically-oriented,democratic society cannot exist with large sections of its population ignorant of science and technology. Attitudes, skills, reasoning abilities, and knowledge from science are prerequisite to a sense of control over human destiny on the part of the populace. Full science literacy involves the followingfour components; (1) Ways of knowing: What do I know? What is the evidence? (2) ActionsIApplications: What do I infer? What are the options? Do I know to take action? (3) Consequences: Do I know what would happen? and (4) Values: Do I care? Do I value the outcome? Who does care? The group agrees that science literacy is essential for all students. Science manpower requirements must he built upon a foundation of science literacy. Even for studentswho take all available science courses, many existing K-12 science.instruction ~ ~ programs are not adequate to produce science literacy. For the majority who take very little seience, the situation is truly a national crisis. ornierts Several national exemnlars as well as international =--.---exist where the interaction of science and society is viewed as the oreanizer for school science. Rov - (18) . has descrihed the scienc&echnology/society focus a s the glue for the science study for many. It hecomes a new context, a new way of selecting content, a new scheme of organization. The National Science Teachers Association selected as one category of its 1982 Search wienceltechnolo~l~wiety for Excellence in Science Kducation w d such a focus orovided a framework for all other foci for excellence in school programs (19). This new context was descrihed a s science education programs providing the individual student with: ~ -
~
~~~
an understanding of the energy problems from a personal perspective; an understanding of their role in population dynamics; an understandii of the emerging problems in the field of human engineering; an understanding of the various asp- of environmental quality and that those aspects may differwith other individuals; an understanding of the various aspects of utilizing the earth's natural resources; an understanding of the various accomplishments of space research and national defense programs; an understanding of the sociology of seience; an understanding of the effects of both hard and soft technological developments on individuals and society in general; the hackground necessary for taking responsible action on energy related issues confrontine " the aoeietv: ~". the harkgmond necessary to understand and react to problems associated with population dymnm~cs; the hackground necessary 11,dwelop insight into theemerging field of human engineering and its impas on society; the background necessary to recognize the variations of the acceptable environmental quality of hisher community, state, and nation. as well as to maintain or imorove it: . ~. the harkground necessary to recognize the societal problems involved in tinding, using, and conzerving natural resources; the hnckpround necessary to react tar the problemsand potpntial benefits to society of the national defense and space programs; an understanding of the sociological effectsof science and technolom: an uberstanding of the impart of technological developments on wlety, in ordpr to make reasonabledecisims regarding their respons~hilitiesinvolving these effecm. ~~
~
~~~~
~~~~
~
Thirteen programs have been named by the National Science Teachers Association as exemplars of a n SITIS context. These include: Volume 61
Number 8
August 1984
695
The Science/Technology/Society move is an international one. In fact, the U.S. has moved into such a focus much later than has the U.K., Israel, and many other industrialized as well as third world nations. Two national projects in the U.K. have attracted much attention. The first of these was called Science in Society. A total of 12 modules have been developed and published (20). The individual topics indicate the relevance of the materials; they include:-(1) Diseases and the Doctor, (2) Medicine and Care, (3) Population and Health, (4) Food, (5)Agriculture, (6) Energy, (7) Mineral Resources, (8) Industry: Men, Money, and Management, (9) Industry, Oreanization and Ohlieation. (10) Nature of Science. (11) ~ c s n c and e Social ~ e v z o p m d n t(12) , Looking to the Future. The second U.K. nroiect is called SISCON (21). The maior topics include: (1)-ways of Living, (2) How Can We Be sure?, (3) Technolow. Invention and Industrv. (4) Evolution and thk Human l&dation, (5) The ~ t o m k ~ o m(6) b , Energy: The Power to Work. (7) Health, Food and Population, and (8) Space, Cosmology, .and Fantasy. Some are initially offended and/or negative when a departure from traditioA science teaching &d standard courses is vrooosed. Many in the scientific community and many sciknck teachers have only their own experienceias frames of reference when such ideas are considered. In a sense such persons are the worst for debate and discussion of such issues. They, after all, represent the "winners" of the old system. ~ n f & m a t e lthere ~ , are many more "losers" than "winners"! Winners are described as those who have chosen t o study science throughout high school and college. Some argue that the new context for school science is a radical departure from current practice. In a sense it is since a whole new basis for choosing specific content is introduced. In another sense, however, the major ideas, concepts, and approaches are of necessity the same. Some have estimated that 80 to 90 percent of the content will he the same if a science/technology/soeietyorganizer is selected. This content, however, will he approached because it is needed to understand real problems or issues. I t will not he content approached (and learned) simply because it is in the textbook or that it will be needed for the next quiz or examination. Such a context does not utilize the traditional themes andlor topics that characterize the various disciplines of science. Those who feel that the proposed "new context" will be revolutionary assume that many favorite topics, ideas, concepts, laboratory exercises will he omitted. This is not necessarily the case. If such material is useful, if it is really important;it cannot he ignored as students come t o grips with the activities and prohlems existing in the real world. The new context for school science is then, the real world,
696
Journal of Chemical Education
real people, real issues. It approachesscience in a philosophical and human sense much as Marshall described it. However, Marshall limited himself to a single required course in the 11th and 12th grades. As we attended to the mass scientific illiteracy issue, as we plan appropriate science for all, and as we conceive of science for ameliorating the real crises of today, we have established a new context for school science. 1tsteps well hevond im~lementinea sinale "cultural" science course proposed by ~ H r s h atwo l ~ yearsago. Literature Cited (1) Marahall, W.L., J. C m . EDUC..SS, 770 (1981). (2) Hufstedler, S. M., and Langenhrrg, D.N.."Seience&EngineeringEducation10, the l9Ws and Bwond."Supt.of Doeumente, U.S.GovcmmentRintiogOffiffie,Waahingtan, DC 20102. R e p a d by NSFand the DepL of Education, O d . 1980. (3) National Sdence Baud.National Science Foundation."Today's Pmblems Tomormu's Crises," A report of the NSB Commission an Precollege Eduation in Mathematics, Science and Technalom,Washington, DC 20550,1982. (4) Helg~aon.S. L.. Blasser, P. E., and Hoare.R. W.. "The Statusof Pre-CollegeSeieno~, Msfhemstics, and SaialSeienee Education: 195&75,"U.S. Dwemment Priatiag 0ffice.StmkNo.038-000-W362-3.Washington. DC 20402.1971. (5) weis, I.R,*%port ofthe 1977 ~ a t i o n asurvey l of seience.~athemstics,andS d S...t d.--.i Edacation." ~ 11s. Government Printine" Office. . . Stmk No. 038rnM1364. Washington, DC 20402,1978. Stake, R. E., and Eseley, J., 'Case Studies in Science Education, Volumes I and n." ~
~
~
~
U.S. GwpmmentPrintingOfice.StmkNa038--3763.
Waabiogton,DCMP(n,
1978.
Miller. J..Suchner.R..andValker,A,"Citi.eashipinanAgeof Sdence."Pemsmon Press.ELmsford, NY. 1980. Ysger. 8. E., "Ststus Study of Graduate Scienee Eduartion in the United Stab, 1960-80," Anal report ta National Science Fouodation. Contract #79-SP-0698. Yager,R. E., "What Research Ssysto the SeienceTeacher.Vol.4."National Science T e a c h e m h i a t i o n , #471-14784 Washingtan. DC. 1982. Harms, N. C..snd Yaw,R. E., '"Whet R-ch Ssvsto the SeisnaTexher.Volume 3." National scienaTeacheraA8soeiation. #471-14776Washington, DC, 1981. Harms. N. C.,"Pmject Synthesis:Anintemrdivemnrolidationof r-chidentifyind n&innauualrnienaeduedtio~."(Apmpasalto the NstionalSeienceFouodhetion). University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 1977. Brandwein.P.F.."Memorandum: OnRene~neSehooliwandEdu~tian."NwYork, . . HsrmurtBlace Jovanovich, 1981. (13) Valker. A. M.. Develoment of an attentive public fmacience: implleationafmorscience
~..,
ERICISMEAC Clearinghouse for sciek Mathematics. and Environmental Eddcation. Columbus. OH. 1980. (15) Yager. R E l J.Re$. Sci. Teach., 1983.20(6), pp. S77a. 116) Hurd.P.DeH.. Robinson.J. T.. MeComeU. M . C., and Roar,N. M., Jr.,"TheStatus of Middle and Junior ~ i Sehwl ~ hScience, Volume two, Technical Raport!'Louiaville. CO: Center forEduationa1 Rsseareh and Evaluation, BSCS. p. 150,1981. 117) NstinndSrionr. X'olmdatinn. "A Rwised and Intensified Science and .. Commission on Premllege Education in Mathemati-, Science, and Technolagy. Washineton.DC. March 11-13.1983. (18) Roy, R.,T h chrisiion Science Monitor, May 19,1983,P.23. (19) peniak, J. E., and Meinhard-Pellena, R., (Editom). "Foeus on Excellence: S e i e n d Torhnolnlru1Sn~i~t.v~ National Science Teachera Assmiation. 1742 Connecticut . , a . . ~.~,, Avenue. NW, Washington. DC 20009, LJSC (20) "Science in society," Heinem- Eduatirmal Book.,Ltd.,nWord%u&rtB,Lmdon WCIB~HH.1981. (21) SISCON-in~SchwlsU(SCiecici in a W Context),"publishdjoinUy by BasilBk&weU and the Assmisfion for ScieneeEducatioo. Great Britain. 19R3.. ~~~~~~~~
~
