Bottom-Up Assembly of Molecular Nanostructures by Means of

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Bottom-up assembly of molecular nanostructures by means of ferroelectric lithography Alexander Haußmann, André Gemeinhardt, Mathias Schröder, Thomas Kämpfe, and Lukas M. Eng Langmuir, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03405 • Publication Date (Web): 17 Dec 2016 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on December 18, 2016

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Bottom-up assembly of molecular nanostructures by means of ferroelectric lithography Alexander Haußmann*, André Gemeinhardt†, Mathias Schröder‡, Thomas Kämpfe, and Lukas M. Eng Institut für Angewandte Physik and Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany

Abstract

Here, we report on the photochemical deposition of Rhodamine 6G (Rh6G) and Alexa647 molecules from aqueous and methanolic solution along 180° ferroelectric (FE) domain walls (DWs) of z-cut lithium niobate (LNO) single crystals. Molecules and FE domains were investigated by means of dynamic-mode AFM, piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), and confocal scanning fluorescence microscopy. A high deposition affinity to 180° DWs on the LNO surface is observed, leading to the formation of molecular nanowires. Additionally, a more complex deposition pattern for Rh6G adsorbed to the domain areas of freshly poled samples was equally observed, being associated with the DW dynamics. These results are explained considering contributions from screening-charge dependent photochemistry as confined to the

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DWs, UV-induced DW motion, and transient electrostatic fields arising from the metastable defect distribution shortly after poling. Hence, tuning these effects offers the possibility for accurately controlling the complex bottom-up assembly of functional molecular nanostructures through domain-structutred ferroelectric templates.

1. Introduction The widespread availability of nanotechnological building blocks such as DNA molecules [1], graphene [2], carbon nanotubes [3], or semiconductor nanowires [4] has created a large demand for techniques to direct their assembly into well defined nanostructures for the fabrication of novel electronic and optoelectronic devices. A versatile approach to fulfill this requirement makes use of ferroelectric templates that exhibit variations in their photochemical surface reactivity, as well as in their electrostatic stray fields through the presence of ferroelectric (FE) domains and domain walls (DWs). The photochemical route is known as ferroelectric lithography (FE-Litho) and was widely used throughout the last years mostly for the photochemical deposition of metallic nanostructures onto oxide materials like barium titanate (BTO) [5, 6], lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) [6-9], lithium niobate (LNO) [10-18], but equally onto the relaxor lead indium niobate - lead magnesium niobate - lead titanate (PIMNT) [19] and the organic ferroelectric polymer poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) [20]. Furthermore, in several studies the versatility of FE-litho was pointed out when assembling multi-component metalloorganic compounds followed by a subsequent reaction step [6, 21, 22], or by depositing magnetic metal structures [7, 23]. In all these cases, only fully or at least partially metallic nanostructures could be fabricated, as they share the same initial step of photochemical metal nanoparticle nucleation. The immediate


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localized assembly of dielectric, organic or biological species onto domain-structured ferroelectrics so far was only achieved by exploiting electrostatic stray fields, such as biological virus molecules onto PZT [24], polystyrene microspheres [25, 26], flour and latex microparticles [27, 28], Evans Blue dye molecules [29], and d-cysteine amino acid molecules onto LNO [30]. Moreover, it was demonstrated that fibroblast cells completely tend to avoid the electric field gradients located at DWs on the surface of lithium tantalate [31], while the migration and fragmentation of liquid crystal droplets on LNO crystals can be influenced by the domain structure through the pyroelectric effect [32]. Stearic acid showed a domain specific deposition from the vapor phase [29], as well as MoS2 monolayers deposited through CVD [33]. Within this work, we demonstrate that (1) it is in fact possible to employ photochemical FELitho for directly depositing nanostructures comprising organic molecules with as good an accuracy as was demonstrated for noble metal structures, and (2) that this approach can be efficiently combined with electrostatic driven deposition to achieve complex structure patterns throughout a single processing step. For this purpose we have used lithium niobate (LNO) substrates, since on their surface the photochemical reactivity can be concentrated to the DWs only [10], whereas on perovskite ferroelectrics such as BTO and PZT the whole area of a specific domain type is always reactive. This domain wall decoration property is a great advantage of LNO, since it allows to grow nanowires up to the mm length scale without requiring domain engineering with nm precision: simply the DW width determines the nanostructure. Following this bottom-up assembly route we were already able to demonstrate the electrical conduction and gas sensing capability of a single platinum nanowire [34]. In this study we have chosen the well-known dyes Rhodamine 6G (Rh6G) and Alexa 647 as organic molecules for our deposition experiments, not only allowing the detection of the


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assembled nanostructures by atomic force microscopy (AFM), but furthermore a complementary confocal optical detection by exploiting the fluorescence properties is possible. Thus we obtained convincing correlations between the Rh6G structures imaged by AFM and fluorescence microscopy. Furthermore, we performed control experiments with Alexa647 molecules, to illustrate that the assembly of non-metallic nanostructures at DWs is not limited to a single molecular species, but can be exploited to precisely arrange a wide range of organic materials.

2. Experimental section Several samples which had been cut from the same wafer of 5 mol% Mg-doped congruent lithium niobate (5% Mg:CLN, z-cut, thickness 300 µm, polished down to a surface roughness of ~0.5 nmrms, supplier: Yamaju Ceramics, Inc.) were used for the Rh6G experiments. Stochastic microdomain structures were obtained by applying voltage pulses of ~0.2 s duration to the sample, which generated electric fields above the coercive field (6.4 kV/mm for forward poling [35]). Electrical contacts were either made symmetrically by two liquid electrodes on both sides (homogenous field) or a combination of one liquid electrode and a copper wire (diameter ~200 µm) (inhomogeneous field). No significant influence of the poling method on the molecular deposition was observed, while the thus achieved domain distributions themselves showed significant alterations. Samples for the deposition of Alexa647 were cut from a wafer of 5 mol% Mg-doped congruent lithium niobate with commercially fabricated periodic poling (PPLN) and planar surfaces, i.e. omitting the usual etching step (Crystal Technology, Inc.). Prior to all deposition experiments, all templates were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath for approx. 20 min in acetone and ethanol.


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Rh6G chloride (479 g/mol, supplier: Radiant Dyes) was dissolved in deionised water at a concentration of 100 µmol/l, whereas Alexa647 carboxylic acid succinimidyl (~1300 g/mol, supplier: Molecular Probes) was dissolved in methanol at a concentration of 4 µmol/l. The LNO samples were glued to a plastic holder and dipped into the standard solution inside a quartz cuvette. By this, a solution volume of reproducible thickness (~ 0.5 mm) with transmission of >80 % for all wavelengths between 250 nm and 500 nm was established in front of the sample (Fig. 1).1

Figure 1. Setup for photochemical solution-based deposition of molecular nanostructures to domain-structured ferroelectric templates. The samples were glued on a plastic holder and dipped either in an aqueous solution of Rh6G or a solution of Alexa647 in methanol inside a UV transparent quartz cuvette. The thickness of the liquid layer in front of the sample measures

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From our experience, glueing the sample to the plastic holder with small stripes of double-sided adhesive tape works best in order to achieve reproducible conditions for the deposition. We did not observe any tendendy of the glue to dissolve in the water either with or without illumination from the Hg lamp.


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~0.5 mm. Hg light was then transmitted into the cuvette to initiate molecular adsorption to ferroelectric domain walls.

The as-filled cuvette was then illuminated by the full spectrum of a Hg lamp (total irradiance intensity 12.3 mW/cm², 1.6 mW/cm² at λ < λGap = 310 nm) for 20 min (Rh6G) and 45 min (Alexa647), respectively, at room temperature. Afterwards, all the samples were shortly rinsed in deionised water and dried with sublimated nitrogen. After this exposure procedure, samples were investigated by conventional light microscopy, dynamic-mode AFM, piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) for imaging ferroelectric domains [36], conductive AFM (CAFM) [37] (AIST-NT SmartSPM 1000, Topometrix Explorer) as well as confocal scanning fluorescence microscopy (Zeiss Axiovert 135 equipped with a scanning stage and a CCD-spectrometer). For CAFM investigations, illumination by a fiber coupled UV LED at 300 nm was used (typical spectral FWHM of 10 nm). All experiments as well as sample storage were carried out at room temperature under ambient conditions.

3. Results Fig. 2a-d depict the typical result of a Rh6G deposition experiment on the +z face (=virgin domain orientation c+) of a Yamaju LNO template, carried out 30 days after creating the domain pattern. For the example shown, a mm-sized c- domain was created first. During a second step,


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several c+ microdomains were generated within this large inverted region. The AFM topography image after deposition (Fig. 2a) shows wire-like structures at the DWs, whose positions were detected independently by PFM (Fig. 2b)2. Additionally, a rough, but almost unstructured areal coverage (mean height 10 nm, peaks up to 100 nm) can be noticed all over the sample surface. However, this areal deposition was less effective in the vicinity (5 µm) from DWs (5) is, similarly, only observed under superbandgap illumination. In our experiments, this effect appears likewise on aged samples as well as on native (non-inverted) and inverted c- domains of freshly poled templates. This means that again the photo-generated charge carriers have to play a crucial role. Reduction reactions on cdomains of LNO were already reported for the case of silver ions and explained by electron donation through the photoelectric effect, occurring for illumination wavelengths below 270 nm [12]. The Hg lamp used in our experiments also provides some emission at these wavelengths. On the other hand, also the c+ area got uniformly decorated on aged samples (Figs. 2a and c). This might be caused by the “traditional” FE-Litho band-bending photoreduction [6], which is weakly present in LNO as well [11, 12]. In contrast to these results for Rh6G, electrostatic forces may play a more important role for the deposition of Alexa647. Apart from the DW decoration, which we attribute to the same processes as for Rh6G, we observed a sparse coverage with rather large clusters exclusively on the c+ surfaces of the PPLN templates. The PPLN samples have to be regarded as “aged” samples here as well, since they were prepared several months before carrying out the deposition experiments. An Alexa647 molecule exhibits a rather high negative charge of -3e due to sulfonation [46]; furthermore, the solvent used here (methanol) has a much lower dielectric constant than water (which was used in the Rh6G experiments). Therefore, we can conclude that the UV illumination has disturbed the screening equilibrium in a way that a positive net charge was created on c+ surfaces leading to an electrostatic attraction of the negatively charged dye molecules.


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5. Conclusion To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on directly depositing organic molecules to ferroelectric DWs by means of photochemical solution-based ferroelectric lithography (FELitho) on LNO. Several similarities and differences to the well known photochemical reduction of noble metal ions were recorded. In all cases super-bandgap light was necessary in order to initiate a DW-specific adsorption of molecules. On aged samples, i.e. several weeks or longer after poling, DW decoration is the dominating feature for both Rh6G and Alexa647 molecules, accompanied by only a weak deposition to the domain areas. On such samples, it is therefore possible to deposit well-defined, cluster-like wires at the DWs. These wires show a similar morphology as noble-metal wires assembled by ferroelectric lithography on the same substrate. From the engineering point of view, this means that nanowires of equal quality can be obtained from ionic molecules if a suitable “sample aging strategy” is followed. We expect that DW decoration is not only restricted to Rh6G and Alexa647, but can be exploited for the defined assembly of a much broader range of molecular species. Concerning the explanation of this effect, we suggest to take not only the electric field peaks due to external screening into account, but also to pay attention to charged domain walls and domain wall conductivity. On freshly poled samples (several hours after poling), we attribute the more complex deposition pattern of Rh6G to additional transient effects. Firstly, fresh DWs can shift their spatial position under UV illumination, leading to a very effective deposition at doubly inverted areas on the +z side of the crystal. This effect is also observed for noble-metal deposition. Secondly, the deposition around a fresh DW is drastically asymmetric. Since this effect was observed for Rh6G molecules only, we postulate an interaction between the Rh6G polarizability and the distribution


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of photoexcited charge carriers inside the ferroelectric, which in this case is dominated by fields arising from metastable defect configuration immediately after electric poling. This offers, in principle, the opportunity to exploit organic dye molecules as probes to map transient fields in ferroelectrics by such a deposition experiment. However, it will be necessary to combine these results with thorough simulation studies, taking into account the special properties of the molecules (polarizability, electronic excitation), the solvent (dielectric constant, temperature) and the ferroelectric (charge carrier generation and recombination, defects and their mobility, screening, DW charges and conductivity).

Author Information Corresponding Author * E-mail [email protected]; Phone: +49 351 463 39191; Fax: +49 351 463 37098.

Present Addresses † Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Günther-Scharowsky-Straße 1, D-91058 Erlangen ‡ IfU GmbH Privates Institut für Umweltanalysen, Gottfried-Schenker-Str. 18, D-09244 Lichtenau

Notes The authors declare no competing financial interest.


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Acknowledgements Financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) within the research training group 1401/1: “Nano- and Biotechniques for Electronic Device Packaging”, the cluster of excellence “Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed)” and the research grant HA 6982/1-1 is gratefully acknowledged.

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Sobek, J.; Aquino, C.; Schlapbach, R. Analyzing Properties of Fluorescent Dyes Used for Labeling DNA in Microarray Experiments. Biofiles 2011, 6, no. 3, 9-12.


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Bottom-Up Assembly of Molecular Nanostructures by Means of

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