Keith P. Anderson Brighom Young University
Provo, Utah
Cheunical Education in Spain Some observations and impressions
The author of this report served as a Fulbright Lecturer in Physical Chemistry at the Universities of Valencia and Barcelona during the 1960-61 school year. He arrived in Spain with conceptions and ideas which, in the field of science education, proved to be largely erroneous. This paper is an attempt to provide first-hand information to those interested in the educational systems, attitudes, and methods of Spain, a country rich in cultural traditions but not yet well established in the world of science. Preschool and Primary Education
Well developed private and public school systems exist below the university level. The public schools, well staffed and offering a rigorous program of instruction, are far too few in number to accommodate those clamoring for admittance. Private schools partially meet this demand. High tuition charges in the private schools eliminate many of those most in need of education to improve their living standards, although tuition is free in the public schools and approximately ten per cent of the students in the private academies and "colegios" are given free tuition. Children are admitted to the private schools at the age of two or three and to the public schools a t the age of four or five. They are taught as nursery and kindergarten students until the age of six when more formal instruction begins. The primary division of instruction is normally a four year program, although a student failing to pass examinations to enter secondary education is allowed to remain in the primary schools until his fifteenth birthday. Pupils are taught general ideas of arithmetic, geometry, Spanish grammar, geography of Spain, and religion. Free tuition in the public schools does not include school supplies such as notebooks, texts, and pencils. Private schools are self-supporting in most cases, and many are operated as business enterprises by individuals or organizations. Secondary Education
At the age of ten, a student takes secondary school entrance examinations. He then begins a "Bachelor's" program consist,ing of a four-year element,ary division and a two-year advanced division. The elementary division provides four years of mathematics, physical education, political education, and religion; three years of drawing; two years of Spanish grammar, Latin, and a modern language (French, English, Italian, or German); and one year of Spanish language, Spanish geography, Spanish history, world geography, natural sciences, physics, and chemistry. An achievement examination given only in the 316 / Journal of Chemical Education
National Institutes of Secondary Education const,itutes an entrance examination to the advanced division for students in both private and public schools. The constitution of the examining committee is specified by the Ministry of National Education. Its chairman must be either an inspector from the National Ministry or a university professor. Two of the other four members must be professors of an institute, and the remaining two are members of the faculty of the institute or private school whose students are being examined. The Ministry of National Education supplies all of the examination questions. Specialization for the student begins during the advanced division of t,he Bachelor's program. He must then choose either letters or sciences as his specialty. All students are given two-year courses in religion, political education, and physical education, and oneyear courses in natural sciences, drawing, languages, philosophy and letters, Spanish literature, and the history of art and culture. Letters students study two years of mathematics and one year of chemistry and of physics. Preuniversity Course
A terminal examination for the Bachelor's program serves also as an entrance examination for a one year "preuniversity" course. The examining committee is constituted as detailed above for entrance into the advanced division of the secondary education program, except that its chairman is always a university professor. The preuniversity course in sciences is obligatory for all students who wish to study any science or any type of engineering, medicine, or veterinary medicine, and is acceptable for those ~ h wish o to enter the fields of political science and economics. Science students outnumber letters students about four to one. University Study
University entrance examinations are given in each of the twelve universit,~districts of Spain. Only those who successfully complete the first (or common) part are allowed to attempt t,he second (or specialized) part of these examinations. University professors supervise the examinations. Examinations are always proctored, students are separated by a t least one empty seat and even then alternate examinations are sometimes given t,o make certain that each student's paper reflects only his own accomplishments. Questions are difficult and demand either a clear understanding or a well-trained memory. The science student entering the university program
in Spain possesses a background of training in mathematics equal or superior to that of his American counterpart. He has studied both modern and classical languages, having achieved good reading facility in at least one modern language other than his own. He has taken several courses in "dibujo," or drawing, upon which much emphasis is placed both in preuniversity and university training. His education is slanted more toward a career in industry than toward research or advanced study. Course of Study for o Chemistry Moior
The curriculum is the same for all chemistry majors regardless of which university he attends. The Ministry of Nat,ional Education details both the number and kinds of courses to be included in the student's program. It is almost hopeless for a professor or a department to obtain permission to decrease, increase, or vary the specified pattern. However, professors are given some latitude in their interpretations of what is meant to be included under a given course description and in the emphasis given various topics within a course. The undergraduate program is a five-year program. Each course is taught throughout an entire academic year; there are no quarters or semesters. All chemistry courses have the same number of hours scheduled for lectures (three) and for problem sessions (one) each week. General chemistry laboratory is taught two hours per week while laboratory work in other chemistry courses is scheduled nine hours per week for one-third of the academic year. I n addition to general chemistry the program of study includes two courses in inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, and physical chemistry, as well as one course in chemical engineering and one in industrial chemistry. Three courses in physics are required: a general course and a course in electricity and optics scheduled as in the general chemistry course, and a course in mechanics and thermodynamics requiring six hours of laboratory study each week. The remainder of a chemistry major's university program consists of two courses in mathematics (three lectures and one problem hour) ; one course in biology (three lect,ures and two laboratory hours); one course in geology (two lectures and one laboratory hour); four courses in religion (one lecture); three courses in polit,ical education (one lecture); and three courses in physical education (two hours). Participation in a sport may he substituted for a coursc in physical education. Before a st.udent is permitted to begin his fourth year of university course work he must pass an examination in English or German and in French (if he has not passed such an examination as a part of his preuniversity work). Each student must also satisfy the faculty of his capability in drawing ("dihujo"). Operation of a Spanish University
University classwork begins a t about 8 A.M. with laboratory sessions scheduled until 6 or 7 o'clock in the evening. The study day is interrupted by a two to four hour "lunch" break when literally everything closes; even the outside entrances to buildings are closed and locked. Saturday mornings are considered
regular school time. The academic year consists of about 30 weeks exclusive of examination periods hut including, holiday and vacation periods. Examination periods at the beginning and end of the instructional period generally total at least four weeks of time; vacation periods and special holidays may total as much as seven weeks. Act,ual classroom time during the five years is probably little more than that required of an American student to complete his four-year program. Undoubtedly the extra year provides added maturity and other instructional benefits not measurable in terms of classroom time. Much emphasis is placed upon science and foreign languages with little attention being given to so-called general education subjects. Texts and reference materials often are in languages other than Spanish. Students usually achieve a reading knowledge of French, English, aud often German. Ordinarily they speak passable French hut underst,and essent,ially no spoken English. The lecture met,hod of instruction is used almost exclusively. S t ~ d e n t ~rarely s ask a question or offer a comment in the very formal classroom atmosphere. Students rise when the professor enters the classroom and remain standing until they are given permission to sit down. Following the lecture the professor is usually available to his students for consultation and assistance, although assistant professors assume much of these responsibilities. A copy of the professor's notes is often made available to his students following the lecture. His notes are sometimes posted in a laboratory for easy st,udent access. Terminal examinations are the backbone of the Spanish educational program. A student who fails to achieve an arbitrarily determined minimum score is expected to repeat the year's course. A considerable portion of the enrollment in many advanced classes consists of repeat,ers. Att,endance a t lect,urcs is entirely voluntary as no roll is taken. Laboratory sessions are well taught with students in relatively small groups. Experiments are well chosen b71t often suffer from a lack of sufficient modern apparatus and equipment. The Graduate Program
The graduate program in Spanish universities suffers from a lack of sufficient funds made availahle by the state to support broad programs of investigation. Almost no non-state funds are availahle. There is only one full professor in each branch of chemistry. Only full professors receive salaries sufficient to allow them to devote full time to university t,eaching and research. Many full professors occupy one or more positions in institutions other than t,he university. Assistant professors receive only token salaries, and must have other non-university income sources such as industrial, tutorial, or other type employment. An assistant professor can become a full professor only when a new position is created (a rare occurrence) or when a position is vacated. Appoint,ments are made by the central authorities after candidates have appeared before an examining committee in a. long seri'es of grneling examinations. In spite of the handicaps, worthwhile research is being performed in restricted fields of study. Volume 39, Number 6, June 1962
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Summary
The recipient of a degree in chemistry from a Spanish university has successfully completed a difficult program of study. His education has heavily emphasized science, mathematics, and languages. The system of terminal examinations encourages learning by rote and the development of capacious memories rather than the ability to think. Many university professors recognize this defect and are struggling to improve the system and to force their student,s t,o reason rather than memorize. Students fear examinations of any kind inordinately and strongly object to their being given as a part of the learning process as well as to assess achievement. University professors are well educated, well informed, and interested in their teaching duties and in the enlargement of research capabilities, but are severely handicapped by the system within which they work.
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Journal o f Chemicol Fducofion
There exists active interest in science in Suanish s education institutions and among ~ ~ a n i a r d in general. The people of Spain value education highly and thirst for more scientific knowledge a t all levels of society. Acknowledgments Acknowledgment of information given and sewices rendered is due the folloving: The Commission for Educational Exchange between the United States of America and Spain, Mr. Ramon Bela, Director. Dr. Jose Ignacio Fernandez Alonzo, Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Valencirt. Dr. Jose I b m ~Aznares, Professor of Physical and Electrochemistry, University of Barcelona. Consular personnel a t Valencia and Barcelona. Many Spanish studenb and others too numerous to name individuallllg.
