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Remediation and Control Technologies
Efficient Photocatalytic Reduction of Aqueous Perrhenate and Pertechnetate Hao Deng, Zijie Li, Xu-cong Wang, Lin Wang, Kang Liu, Li-Yong Yuan, Zhiyuan Chang, John K. Gibson, Lirong Zheng, Zhifang Chai, and Wei-Qun Shi Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03199 • Publication Date (Web): 21 Aug 2019 Downloaded from pubs.acs.org on August 22, 2019
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Environmental Science & Technology
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Efficient Photocatalytic Reduction of Aqueous
3
Perrhenate and Pertechnetate
4
Hao Deng1,2, Zi-jie Li1, Xu-cong Wang1, Lin Wang1, Kang Liu1, Li-yong Yuan1, Zhi-
5
yuan Chang2, John K. Gibson3, Li-rong Zheng4, Zhi-fang Chai1,5 and Wei-qun Shi*,1
6 1 Laboratory
7
of Nuclear Energy Chemistry, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
8 2 Department
9
of Radiochemistry, China Institute of Atomic Energy, Beijing 102413, China
10 3 Chemical
11
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
(LBNL), Berkeley, California 94720, United States
12 4 Beijing
13
Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
14 15
5
16
Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315201, China
17
*Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry, Institute of High
18
Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China, Tel: +86-10-
19
88233968
Engineering Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials, Ningbo Institute of Industrial
20 21
E-mail address:
[email protected] 22 23
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ABSTRACT: Pertechnetate anion (99TcO4-) is a long-lived radioactive species that is
25
soluble in aqueous solution, in contrast to sparingly soluble 99TcO2. Results are reported
26
for photocatalytic reduction and removal of perrhenate (ReO4-), a nonradioactive
27
surrogate for
28
UV-visible irradiation. Re(VII) removal up to 98% was achieved at pH = 3 under air or
29
N2. The proposed mechanism is Re(VII)/Re(IV) reduction mediated by reducing radicals
30
(·CO2-) from oxidation of formic acid, not direct reduction by photogenerated electrons
31
of TiO2. Recycling results indicate photocatalytic reduction of ReO4- exhibits excellent
32
regeneration and high activity with > 95% removal even after five cycles.
33
more easily reduced than Re(VII) in the presence of NO3- with very slow redissolution of
34
reduced 99Tc. This study presents a novel method for the removal of ReO4-/99TcO4- from
35
aqueous solution, with potential application for deep geological disposal.
99TcO -, 4
using a TiO2 (P25) nanoparticle suspension in formic acid under
99Tc(VII)
is
36 37
INTRODUCTION
38
Technetium-99 (99Tc), a β-emitting isotope (β-max = 293.7 keV), is generated from
39
thermal neutron induced fission of uranium-235 (235U), and spontaneous fission of 238U in
40
the earth’s crust.1, 2 99Tc is also formed from decay of the medical radioisotope 99mTc with
41
a half-life of only 6.0 h.3 The most common chemical form is pertechnetate,
42
which is of particular environmental concern due to the long half-life of 99Tc (2.13 × 105
43
years),1 and the resistance to adsorption on mineral surfaces and sediments that results in
44
migration with potential ecosystem risks.4-7
99TcO -, 4
45
Because, all technetium isotopes species are radioactive, research progress is
46
challenging. As a result, rhenium (Re) is often used as a non-radioactive chemical
47
analogue of 99Tc.8-11 Among the various methods used for removal of 99TcO4-/ReO4- from
48
aqueous solution is conventional solvent extraction.12,
49
shortcomings, such as utilization of large amounts of toxic and volatile organic reagents,
50
and resulting production of secondary wastes. Alternative ion exchange methods14-16
51
require high quality of raw liquid to avoid column blockage. Despite a recent
52
breakthrough toward TcO4- elimination via molecular recognition,17 long-term storage
53
stability of Tc-containing materials requires further attention and large-scale practical
54
applications have not been demonstrated.18 Solid waste forms for
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Nevertheless, there remain
99Tc
immobilization
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include metals such as Tc-Zr alloys,19 and borosilicate glasses.20 A disadvantage of the
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latter is oxidation and release of volatile Tc molecules during high-temperature
57
vitrification.1 An appealing method to immobilize
58
99Tc
is reduction of soluble Tc (VII) to
59
sparingly soluble Tc (IV) with removal from aqueous solution as 99TcO2·nH2O species,8,
60
21
61
waste forms for long-term disposal.19, 20
62
which can be separated by physical filtration and then converted to metal or other Common reducing agents such as SO32-, Sn2+ , Fe2+
9, 22, 23
and biomass,24,
25
are
63
exhausted in one cycle and not readily reused. Using Fe(0)/Fe(II) as the reductant couple,
64
99Tc/Re
65
Electrochemical methods29-31 involve toxic chemicals and furthermore the presence of
66
SO42- suppressed Re(VII) reduction in aqueous solution. Although γ radiation-induced
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reduction32 via hydrated electrons might efficiently reduce and seperate Re(VII), the
68
conditions are impractical. Photochemical induced reduction31,
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broadband UV or laser irradiation over 6 h afforded 94.7% recovery of Re; unfortunately,
70
the high molar absorptivity of Re(VII) limits the practical concentration of Re(VII).
were sequestrated using a simultaneous adsorption-reduction strategy.21,
32
26-28
of Re(VII) using
71
Heterogeneous semiconductor-based photocatalytic reduction of heavy metal ions
72
such as Cu2+, Hg2+, Ag+, U(VI) and Cr(VI) 33-37 has been proposed. Many photocatalysts
73
are regarded as environmental friendly materials because of chemical inertness and
74
biological compatibility in natural systems. For example, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a
75
good prospect for photocatalytic reduction and removal of metal ions, due to high
76
resistance to photocorrosion, non-toxicity,38 low environmental pollution, regeneration
77
ability, low cost, and convenient operations.38, 39 Evans et al.40 reported selective removal
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(98%) of uranium from waste liquid containing strong complexing agents using TiO2 as a
79
photocatalyst. Wang et al.41 prepared a TiO2/g-C3N4 heterojunction composite that
80
facilitated rapid separation and transfer of photogenerated electrons, thus achieving
81
efficient reduction and fixation of uranium. Although TiO2 has been demonstrated for
82
photocatalytic reduction of radioactive uranium, there is evidently no report addressing
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utilization of this approach for technetium reduction and removal.
84
The objective of this study was to provide fundamental understanding of
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photocatalytic 99Tc/Re reduction and removal using TiO2 nanoparticles in the presence of
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as a
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HCOOH. Most of this work was still conducted using non-radioactive ReO4
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surrogate for 99TcO4-.8, 42 Anyway, the reported 99Tc(VII/IV) redox potential (E0 = +0.74
88
V) is somewhat more positive than that for Re(VII/IV) (E0 = +0.51 V), which means
89
photocatalytic reduction of Tc(VII) should be more energetically favorable. In addition,
90
the reduction/removal mechanism was elucidated by photoelectrochemical measurements,
91
electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-
92
ray absorption spectroscopy. These results suggest an environmental friendly
93
photocatalytic approach for
94
solution.
99TcO − 4
−
/ReO4 − removal and sequestration from aqueous
95 96
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
97
Materials and Chemicals. Ammonium perrhenate (NH4ReO4, AR grade),
98
HCOOH (99%, AR) were from Aladdin Co., Shanghai, China. These and other
99
commercial (reagent grade) chemicals were used without further purification. TiO2 (P25)
100
was from Degussa. Solutions were prepared using water from a Milli-Q water
101
purification system (18.2 MΩ cm, Millipore Co.).
102
Photocatalytic Experiments. Photocatalytic experiments with TiO2 (P-25, 0.1 ~
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0.6 g L-1) suspensions were carried out in a circulating water-cooled 100 mL jacketed
104
quartz beaker. To only evaluate the change of Re(VII) concentration under light
105
irradiation, TiO2 suspensions were stirred for 60 minutes before turning on the lamp to
106
ensure adsorption equilibrium ReO4- onto the surface of TiO2 in the solution of 50 mL
107
Re(VII) (0.5 ~ 50 mg L-1) and HCOOH (or CH3OH or CH3COOH, 0.1 ~ 2% by volume).
108
pH values of the suspensions were adjusted in the range 1 - 6 by adding a small amounts
109
of NaOH or H2SO4 (∼ 2.5 mol L-1). Bubbling N2 was used to provide an anaerobic
110
atmosphere. The mixture was illuminated for 150 min using a 300 W Xenon lamp (> 320
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nm) to simulate UV-visible sunlight. Aliquots of 0.5 mL were periodically collected
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during irradiation, and filtered through 0.2 μm millipore membranes before analysis of
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Re remaining in solution. The Re concentration was obtained using an inductively
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coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (Horiba JY2000-2, ICP-OES). Detection
115
limit (0.06 μg mL-1) of the method and the dilutions (4% HNO3 aqueous solution) are
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provided in the determination of Re concentration by ICP-OES. Dissolved Re is
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expressed as Ct/C0, where C0 and Ct are the Re concentrations (mg L-1) at the end of
118
adsorption without irradiation, and after irradiation for time t (min), respectively. In the
119
recycling experiments, the suspension was exposed to air and oxidized to Re(VII) before
120
the next experiment. After completion of the photoreaction, suspended materials were
121
separated by vacuum filtration, washed immediately with absolute ethanol, and stored
122
under vacuum until analysis. All experiments were repeated at least two times, and these
123
experimental data were average values with 95% confidence bounds.
124
Solid Characterization. TiO2 samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction
125
(XRD; Bruker D8 Advance diffractometer) with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å). Raman
126
spectra were obtained using a HORIBA Scientific spectrometer with 473 nm Laser (Laser
127
quantum Ltd.). Near-surface compositions of TiO2 after photocatalytic reaction were
128
analyzed using Kratos AXIS UltraDLD X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
129
Radicals from photocatalytic reactions were identified using a Bruker E-500 electron
130
paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer. 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO)
131
is used as a spin marker of EPR to characterize the free radical. X-ray absorption fine
132
structure (XAFS) of Re samples after photocatalytic reaction, as well as reference
133
samples NH4ReO4 and ReO2, were obtained in fluorescence mode at beamline 1W1B of
134
Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility.
135
Tc Removal:
99Tc
was obtained as a 2% HNO3 stock solution of potassium 99Tc
136
pertechnetate (KTcO4) from China Institute of Atomic Energy. The
137
were performed in a special radiological laboratory. In accord with the above
138
experimental protocol for Re, the corresponding 99TcO4- solution was illuminated for 150
139
min under the identified optimal Re(VII) reduction/removal conditions. Residual
140
concentration of
141
PerkinElmer). Aliquots of 0.5 mL were periodically collected during light irradiation, and
142
filtered through 0.2 μm millipore membranes before analysis. 0.2 ml of the filtrate was
143
then mixed with 5 ml of liquid scintillation cocktail (ULTIMA Gold, PerkinElmer) and
144
held in a 6 ml of plastic scintillation vial for measurements. The reacted suspension was
145
stirred in air to observe the re-oxidation and release of reduced Tc.
99Tc
experiments
was analyzed by a liquid scintillation counter (Tri-Carb,
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Photocatalytic Reduction of ReO4-. Figure 1A shows the time evolution of the
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Re(VII) residual ratio in suspensions of 0.4 g L-1 TiO2 (P-25) with 1% HCOOH at pH = 3
149
under UV-visible irradiation. After adsorption onto TiO2 without irradiation for a fixed
150
time of 60 minutes, the concentration of Re(VII) at zero time (the moment of light-on)
151
remains at the initial concentration of 5 mg L-1, which indicates that perrhenate, like
152
pretechnetate, cannot be effectively adsorbed onto mineral surfaces and sediments.4
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Furthermore, in the absence of TiO2 there was no detectable reduction of Re(VII) under
154
UV-visible irradiation for 150 min. However, reduction of Re(VII) proceeded rapidly in
155
the presence of TiO2 and irradiation, indicating an important role for TiO2 nano-particles
156
in photocatalytic reduction. After irradiation for 150 min, photocatalytic ReO4- removal
157
achieved a maximum of 98.7 %, with a reaction rate constant ( k1' ) of 0.638 min-1,
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obtained using the retarded first-order model43 as expressed by equation (1).
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' dCt k' 1 Ct or Ct C0 (1 t ) k1 / dt 1 t
(1)
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In (1), C0 and Ct are concentrations (mg L-1) of the soluble Re at the end of light-off
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and after irradiation, respectively, for a reaction time t (min); k1' is the apparent rate
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constant (min-1), analogous to classical pseudo first-order rate constant; and α (min-1) is a
163
retarding factor indicating the deviation from pseudo-first order behavior.43, 44 α is only a
164
fitted coefficient, as shown in Table S1. When the effect of adsorption of Re onto the
165
TiO2 surface is ignored, nearly pseudo first-order kinetics for Re(VII) reduction are
166
obtained using a simplified first-order rate equation, rather than the traditional Langmuir-
167
Hinshelwood rate equation.45 Figure 1A exhibits the differences between the pseudo
168
first-order and retarded first-order fittings for anaerobic atmosphere. Although both
169
models fit the data for short times (< 10 min), the retarded first-order model gives a
170
somewhat better fit (R2 = 0.99 versus 0.97) for longer times. Compared with N2 bubbling,
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reduction of Re(VII) is not drastically diminished by the oxidizing effect of dissolved air
172
(Figure 1A), with only a slight decrease in net reduction for irradiation times longer than
173
20 min. The results suggest that if the reaction rate is adequately fast at short times
174
(Figure 1A), dissolved air will be a relatively unimportant factor.
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If photo-generated holes can be quickly removed from the TiO2 surface, there is less
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possibility for recombination with electrons, which enhances use of the latter for
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reduction. It has been reported46 that organic additives such as HCOOH can enhance
178
photocatalytic reduction of metal ions, including U(VI). Figures 1B and C show effects
179
of 0.1 ~ 2% by volume of HCOOH for light-off and irradiation of 0.4 g L-1 aqueous TiO2
180
in flowing N2 atmosphere at pH 2. It should be noted that the Re(VII) removal rate
181
(Figure 1C and Table S1) is negligible in the absence of HCOOH. There is considerable
182
enhancement in photocatalytic reduction due to HCOOH, with an increase in removal of
183
Re(VII) as the HCOOH concentration is increased from 0% to 1%; a decrease in Re(VII)
184
removal is apparent upon further increasing HCOOH to 2%. This may be because the
185
HCOOH induced adsorption of Re(VII) onto the TiO2 surface is almost impossible in our
186
case (Figure 1B), and thus the increase of HCOOH concentration may not lead to the
187
favorable photocatalytic reduction.47, 48 Besides, excessive HCOOH adsorbed on the TiO2
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surface (at high HCOOH levels) could vary light absorption of photocatalytic materials,
189
which was well documented by Chenthamarakshan et al.49 It is apparent that the
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photocatalytic reduction is controlled by some intermediates generated by HCOOH
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photooxidation. Thus Re(VII) removal in the presence of HCOOH reflect a trend of
192
indirect reduction route based on radical intermediates, in agreement with the reaction
193
mechanism reported by Rajeshwar et al.50
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It has been reported that photoxidation of HCOOH produces radical intermediates
195
that can reduce metal ions50, 51 such as Ni2+, Zn2+, and Cr3+. Although Re(VII) reduction
196
seems to exhibit a similar effect, there are important differences. In Cr(VI) reduction,
197
addition of formate accelerates the Cr(VI) adsorption onto TiO2 surface for
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photoreduction.49 As the results in Figures 1A-C reveal, Re(VII) has little tendency to
199
adsorb on the surface of TiO2, with light-off adsorption apparently unimportant for
200
photocatalytic reduction of Re(VII). The present results indicate that TiO2, light
201
irradiation, and HCOOH are all essential for Re(VII) reduction and removal.
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203 204 205 206 207 208
Figure 1. (A) Removal of Re(VII), for no TiO2 and 0.4 g L-1 TiO2 with different conditions; pH = 3, [HCOOH] = 1%, [Re(VII)] = 5 mg L-1. Removal of Re(VII) for different concentrations of HCOOH, for (B) No-light and (C) UV-visble irradiation; pH = 2, [Re(VII)] = 10 mg L-1. (D) Removal of Re(VII) with different organic additives under light irradiation; pH = 3, [organic additive] = 1%, [Re(VII)] = 5 mg L-1. V = 50 mL, T = 298 K throughout.
209
Photocatalytic Reduction Mechanism. When TiO2 is excited by light irradiation to
210
generate e-/h+ pairs that overcome recombination and transfer to the oxide/water
211
interface,52 the pairs can combine with electron acceptors (e.g. H+, O2) or donors
212
(HCOOH, OH-, H2O). Photo-oxidation of formic acid is believed to form the strongly
213
reducing radical ·CO2-.50 The reduction potential of -1.9 V for E0 (CO2/·CO2-),53 could
214
enable ·CO2- to reduce Re(VII) (E0 (Re(VII)/Re(IV) = +0.51 V). To assess the role of
215
formic acid, experiments were also performed using CH3OH or CH3COOH. The results
216
in Figure 1D show only minor photo-induced reduction of Re(VII) for TiO2/CH3COOH
217
and none for CH3OH. Minor reduction of Re(VII) with CH3COOH as an electron donor
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might reflect that photo-generated h+ or HO· preferentially react with HCOOH due to its
219
better adsorption onto TiO2, which results in faster oxidation to generate
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reducing ·CO2-.46 Based on results with no electron donor (Figure 1C), we conclude that
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photo-generated e- of TiO2 under light irradiation does not induce direct reduction of
222
Re(VII).
223
Reaction pathways were elucidated from EPR of radical intermediates. As shown in
224
Figure 2A, there are no obvious EPR signal peaks for the systems TiO2, HCOOH or
225
TiO2/HCOOH/Re(VII) without UV-vis irradiation, or for HCOOH with UV-vis
226
irradiation. However, when TiO2 alone is exposed to UV-vis irradiation for 10 min,
227
trapping of HO· radicals generates a stable paramagnetic adduct species DMPO-
228
HO· (Figure 2A, brown trace). For the system light/TiO2/HCOOH (Figure 2A, red
229
trace), the DMPO-HO· adduct is negligible while a new signal appears that is assigned to
230
a spin adduct of ·CO2-. Perissinotti et al.54 and Villamena et al.55 have shown that when
231
DMPO is used as an EPR spin marker in such study, an EPR signal peak appears that is
232
attributed
233
light/TiO2/HCOOH/Re(VII) (Figure 2A, green trace) is similar to that of
234
light/TiO2/HCOOH, though the DMPO-·CO2- adduct signal is diminished, presumably
235
due to reaction between ·CO2- and ReO4-. The indirect reaction of radical intermediates
236
can be expressed by the following reaction scheme in correspondence to previous
237
studies.50, 56
to
adduct
DMPO-·CO2-.
The
EPR
spectra
of
system
238
TiO 2 hv eCB hVB (2)
239
H2O + hVB+ → HO· + H+ (3)
240
hVB+/HO· + HCOOH/HCOO- → HCOO·/·CO2- + H2O (4)
241
Re(VII) + ·CO2- → Re(VI) + CO2 (5)
242
Equation (5) is based on one-electron reduction of ReO4-; Re(VI) could be
243
transformed to lower oxidation states Re(V) and Re(IV) by disproportionation.32 When
244
discussing the possible fate of ·CO2-, it is necessary to consider the reaction of ·CO2- with
245
dissolved O2 (equation 6)56. However, reaction (6) is negligible when the solution is
246
bubbled with N2 to provide an anaerobic atmosphere (Figure 1A). It should be noted
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that ·CO2- could be oxidized to CO2 by electron injection into the conduction band of
248
TiO257 (equation 7).
249
·CO2- + O2 → CO2 + O2·- (6)
250
·CO2- → CO2 + eCB- (7)
251
Indirect reaction between the intermediate species (·CO2-) from HCOOH photo-
252
oxidation and Re(VII) in aqueous solution was further assessed from the TiO2 electrode
253
photocurrent using Bard’s approach.58 Because strongly reducing radicals (·CO2-) can
254
inject e- into the conduction band of TiO2, it is expected that effects of the “current-
255
doubling” will be observed. In Figure 2B, for 0.1 mol L-1 Na2SO4, the photocurrent (~15
256
μA) is controlled by oxidation of H2O or OH-.58 Introducing 0.1% HCOOH as a current-
257
doubling agent (0.1 mol L-1 Na2SO4+0.1% HCOOH), increases the current by up to a
258
factor of ten (i.e. ~150 μA). When Re(VII) is introduced, the reduction reaction of Re(VII)
259
competes with injection of e- into TiO2, with a resulting decrease in the photocurrent (to
260
~90 μA) (Figure 2B). The results suggest that current-doubling signals obtained in
261
photo-oxidation process of HCOOH are due to the ·CO2- intermediate, with electrons
262
simultaneously released into the conduction band.
263 264 265 266 267 268
Figure 2. (A) First-derivative EPR spectra of DMPO spin adducts. Under dark: TiO2, HCOOH and TiO2/HCOOH/Re(VII); Under light: TiO2, HCOOH, TiO2/HCOOH and TiO2/HCOOH/Re(VII). (B) TiO2 current-potential measurements: (■) Idark with 0.1 mol L-1 Na2SO4+0.1% HCOOH+5 mg L-1 Re(VII); (●) Iphoto with 0.1 mol L-1 Na2SO4; (▲) Iphoto with 0.1 mol L-1 Na2SO4+0.1% HCOOH; (▼) Idark with 0.1 mol L1 Na SO +0.1% HCOOH+5 mg L-1 Re(VII). 2 4
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Effects of Other Factors on Photocatalytic Redution.
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Concentrations of photocatalyst and Re(VII). Figure 3A shows good fit for
272
retarded pseudo first-order kinetics at different TiO2 dosages (R2 = 0.970 - 0.998).
273
Increasing the amount of TiO2 from 0.1 to 0.2 g L-1, increased the rate constant k1' from
274
0.048 to 0.181 min-1 (~ 3.8 times). The oddly large increase might reflect enhancement of
275
light absorption by the larger amount of photocatalyst.36 Further increasing the TiO2 from
276
0.2 to 0.4 (or 0.4 to 0.6) g L-1, increased the k1' (min-1) from 0.181 to 0.344, a factor of
277
1.9, (or 0.344 to 0.565, a factor of 1.6). At the higher dosages (0.4 and 0.6 g L-1), light
278
scattering from TiO2 particles36 and other influencing factors such as mass transfer,
279
Re(VII) and NO3-concentration see below should become more important.59 To further
280
elucidate effects of the amount of TiO2 on reaction rate, surface-area normalized rate
281
constants (kBET = k1' /SBET/ mTiO2 ) were considered using the specific surface area, SBET =
282
57.96 m2 g-1, determined by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method based on
283
N2 adsorption isotherms (Figure S1). Using the retarded k1' (Table S1), kBET is 0.008,
284
0.015, 0.015 and 0.016 [L (min·m2)-1] at 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 g L-1 TiO2, respectively. As
285
expected, for higher amounts of TiO2, there are more available reaction sites.
286
As displayed in Figure 3B and Table S1, upon increasing C0(Re) from 0.5 to 50 mg
287
L-1, the photoreaction rate constant k1' for Re(VII) decreases from 0.654 to 0.030 min-1. A
288
fixed dose of TiO2 (0.2 g L-1) is more effective for reduction and removal of low
289
concentration of Re(VII). Although more effective Re(VII) removal could be found at
290
higher TiO2 dose like 0.4 or 0.6 g/L, kBET stably remains to be 0.015- 0.016 [L (min·m2)-1]
291
at TiO2 dose of 0.2- 0.6 g L-1. Therefore, the reaction sites may not be fully utilized in the
292
presence of higher TiO2 dose.
293
Competition by NO3-. In legacy nuclear waste, there is often substantial nitric acid in
294
storage tanks to control corrosion and other chemistry, with a result that reduction of
295
nitrate to nitrite can compete with reduction of 99TcO4-. Results in Figure 3C for Re(VII)
296
removal for NO3- concentrations in the range of 1 to 100 mmol L-1 confirm that nitrate
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adversely affects Re(VII) reduction, in accord with initial one-electron reduction of NO3-
298
to form the short-lived NO32- in the presence of formic acid.54
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300 301 302 303 304 305
Figure 3. Time profiles of Re(VII) reduction during the irradiation of TiO2 suspensions with N2 bubbling, V = 50 mL, T = 298 K. (A) Various dosages of TiO2, [HCOOH] = 1%, [Re(VII)] = 10 mg L-1, pH = 2; (B) Effects of initial Re(VII) concentration, [HCOOH] = 1%, 0.2 g L-1 TiO2, pH = 2; (C) Influence of NO3concentration, [HCOOH] = 1%, [Re(VII)] = 10 mg L-1, 0.2 g L-1 TiO2, pH = 2; (D) Solution pH values, [HCOOH] = 0.2% , [Re(VII)] = 10 mg L-1, 0.4 g L-1 TiO2.
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Effect of pH. pH values were adjusted in the range ~1-6 by addition of 2.5 mol L-1
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H2SO4 or 2.5 mol L-1 NaOH. As shown in Figure S2A, without irradiation there is
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insignificant bulk adsorption of Re(VII) onto TiO2 in this pH range. These results also
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indicate little effect of SO42- on bulk adsorption of Re(VII) and little competition with
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reduction of Re(VII), reflecting E0 (SO42-/SO2 = 0.158 V). Figure 3D shows the influence
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of pH on photocatalytic reduction of Re(VII). Reduction and removal percentage of
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Re(VII) is extremely low at lower pH (~1), which is correlated with the fact that the
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soluble Re(III) species may be produced under this condition, and cannot be separated by
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simple physical filtration.2 Increasing pH from 1 to 4 enhanced Re(VII) removal from 0%
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to 80.1%; further increasing from 4 to 6 decreased removal back down to 0%. Increasing
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pH can decrease the valence band potential of TiO2 (EVB),60 which could inhibit oxidation
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of formic acid. According to the Eh-pH diagram of Re,2 reduction of Re(VII) (pH = 2~5)
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could result in precipitation of ReO2(s)·xH2O, which is the key for Re(VII) removal. The
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dip in the initial stage of curves at pH 5 and pH 6, respectively, is due to the reduction
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and removal of Re(VII). Nevertheless, the overall reduction of ReO4- may be represented
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by equation (8), which would result in increasing pH (Figure S2B). At high pH
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conditions, the soluble [Re(IV)O(OH)3]- species result in the decease of Re(VII)
324
removal.2 From the observed pH dependence, we conclude that the optimal pH range for
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photocatalytic reduction is 3~4.
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ReO4- + 4H+ + 3e- → ReO2 + 2H2O (8)
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Reusability of TiO2. Along with photocatalytic activity for reduction of Re(VII),
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TiO2 (P-25) presents excellent stability, as shown in Figure 4. After each reaction, the
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photocatalyst was left in aqueous suspension by continuously stirring in dark with air
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atmosphere for 24h, which resulted in a complete re-dissolution of Re. The re-oxidized
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suspension was then re-irradiated for 150 min. Re(VII) removal during five cycles was
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96.7%, 96.4%, 96.1%, 96.0%, and 95.7%, with no significant decrease in photocatalytic
333
activity. Unchanged characteristics of TiO2 before and after photocatalytic reactions were
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confirmed by XRD and Raman spectroscopy (Figure. S3). XPS spectra (Re 4f region)
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(Figure. S4A-B), X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES), and extended X-ray
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absorption fine structure (EXAFS) (Figure. S4C-D) were used to analyze the surface
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components of the solid residues (TiO2-Re). The results indicate that Re(VII)/Re(IV)
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reduction is induced by TiO2 particles in the presence of HCOOH under UV-vis
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irradiation. For solid residues dried in vacuum after photocatalytic reaction, the
340
percentage of Re(IV) was roughly 82 to 87%. In contrast, for wet residues in air, much
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lower percentage of Re(IV) of 42 to 51% was observed, as Re(IV) can be oxidized to
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Re(VII) when exposed to air under wet conditions (Figure 4B and Equation S1). The
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ReO2·nH2O sample dried in vacuum is, as expected, more stable than that in wet solid
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form, which gives a hint that dried Tc(IV) form is more appropriate for deep geological
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disposal of Tc. The results overall suggest photocatalytic reduction/removal of ReO4- as
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an efficient, robust and environmentally friendly approach.
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Figure 4. (A) Cycling runs of TiO2 for photocatalytic reduction of Re(VII). Time profiles of Re(VII) reduction during the irradiation of 0.4 g L-1 TiO2 suspensions at the pH = 3, with N2 bubbling, [HCOOH] = 1%, [Re(VII)] = 5 mg L-1, V = 50 mL, T = 298 K. (B) The color change of both the solid and solution before and after photocatalysis.
352 353 99Tc
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Reduction and Removal. The results for ReO4- suggest photocatalytic
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reduction and removal of 99TcO4- as an alternative to other separations approaches,8, 21, 42,
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61
357
shows
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reported above, with 20 mmol L-1 NO3-. Notably, 99Tc(VII) removal of 68% and rate k1'
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of 0.274 min-1 are significantly higher than for Re(VII) (37% and 0.081 min-1,
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respectively). The reported
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positive than for Re(VII/IV) (E0 = +0.51 V), which may explain more facile reduction of
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Tc(VII), and less interference from nitrate. The “light-off” results in Figure 5 reveal that,
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in contrast to Re(IV), re-oxidation of Tc(IV) is not significant under these conditions,
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which is consistent with the generally higher stability of
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compounds.2 This may be because the photocatalytic reduction and removal of Re(VII)
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or 99Tc(VII) is studied in an anaerobic atmosphere via N2 bubbling. After the completion
but a particular concern is competition of NO3-, as was observed with ReO4−. Figure 5 99Tc(VII)
and Re(VII) photocatalytic reduction under the optimal conditions
99Tc(VII/IV)
potential (E0 = +0.74 V)2 is somewhat more
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of photoreaction, the suspension was exposed to air and oxidized to soluble Re/Tc in
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reoxidation experiment. Thus, the oxygen partial pressure of solution is very low in
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reoxidation experiment within short time (~ 1440 min). The solubility of TcO2·nH2O is
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strongly dependent upon the presence of oxygen, but ReO2·nH2O is not.62 These results
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should stimulate further studies of photocatalytic reduction and removal of Tc(VII).
372 373 374 375
Figure 5. Time profiles of 99Tc(VII) and Re(VII) reduction during the irradiation of 0.4 g L-1 aqueous TiO2 suspensions at the pH = 3, with N2 bubbling, [HCOOH] = 1%, [99Tc(VII) or Re(VII)] = 0.05 mmol L-1, [NO3-] = 20 mmol L-1, V = 50 mL, T = 298 K.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
378
Supporting Information
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The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI:
381
Figures showing N2 sorption-desorption isotherm of TiO2, effect of pH on
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photocatalytic reaction, XPS, XAFS, XRD and Raman characterizations of reacted
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photocatalysts (PDF).
384 385
AUTHOR INFORMATION
386
Corresponding Author
387
*E-mail:
[email protected]. Tel: +86-010-88233968, Fax: +86-010-88235294.
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Notes
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The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
391 392 393 394 395
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants no. 21577144, 11675192, 21790373 and 21790370) and the Science Challenge Project (TZ2016004). JKG was supported by the Center for Actinide Science and Technology, an Energy Frontier Research Center funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences under Award Number DE-SC0016568.
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