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making an individual standard for each case are much greater, I think, than most food chemists have realized or have used. Take, for instance, the question of watering and skimming of milk. If our analytical data indicates the possibility of the addition of water and we turn t o the literature for information, we find a most confusing condition. Thousands and thousands of analyses of milk, widely varying, have been published, and it is doubtful if any of the mixing would be detected if these records were permitted t o be used as a standard, but it is recognized t h a t different breeds of cows give milk of entirely different composition, so that the first thing that should occur t o us is to determine from what breed of cattle the milk which we have analyzed comes. Then it is possible for us to eliminate from our comparison all of the data which has been published or recorded on c o m of other breeds, b u t i t is almost always a practicable and feasible proposition t o get a sample of the milk under consideration before it has been adulterated. By going out t o the farm, we can find out the kind of cattle which are being milked, we can stay there during the milking periods and obtain samples of the milk under our personal supervision in such a way that water could not be added. Tt’hen we have obtained a n average sample of the milk of the night and morning and have obtained the analysis, we then have a n accurate standard with which t o compare the product under consideration. If it is not possible t o get such a sample, we can a t least narrow our standard down to determining the breed of cattle. If it is necessary for the chemist to take a sample of milk and analyze i t without any information as t o its source and he is unable t o obtain any information as t o its source, we have a very unsatisfactory and inaccurate standard or method of proving adulteration. We must then take into consideration the wide variations recorded in the literature, and our final conclusion must be a more or less accurate guess. It would be possible t o go on and outline a number of other cases where it is possible and feasible practically to obtain the product itself before adulteration as a standard for comparison, b u t I think these two illustrate a general principle toward which the intelligent and thoughtful man must work in every case. \\’e know from our experience that the composition of natural products varies from time to time, from season t o season, and from location to location. The article now on the market may not have existed a year or ten years ago. Take, for instance, the grapes of a certain section, which are peculiar in that they have certain qualities, and a grape juice made from them has certain peculiar characteristics as to acid, sugar, and color. The grape juice made from the same variety of grapes, grown in another section, might be materially different, so that, in our classification and comparison of grape juices, we must try t o eliminate from consideration grape juices which were not made under the same conditions and in the same location. The first thing the analyst should do in examining grape juice is to determine, by taste and appearance if possible, the kind of grapes from which manufactured, and, if possible, the place of production. Then he is in a fairly good position t o eliminate from consideration the analyses and data which have been published on other varieties. It has seemed t o me, during the consideration of this paper, that some results published in the past have been of comparative little value, because exact detailed descriptions of the samples are not given. I t seems to me that data, in order t o have the greatest value as a standard for comparison, must describe exactly in minutest detail the kind, place of production, and every other factor which would have an effect upon the composition of the product. The idea was spread abroad some years ago that it was impossible t o determine by an analysis whether American beers were made from malt or malt substitutes, because the recorded
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analyses of foreign beers made from a certain kind of malt were similar in analyses t o American beers made from malt and malt substitutes. Of course it was impossible t o determine, by analyses of American beers and comparing them with data on German beers, that there was any substitution for malt, but why should we do so unscientific and inaccurate a thing as t o permit ourselves t o use for a standard for comparison a product which is not a true standard? The proper standard for comparison of American beers would be American beers produced from the malt used in this country and under the conditions prevailing in this country. The point that I wish to make, and to reiterate, is that it is not scientific or proper t o use, as a basis of comparison, data or records or analyses of products which are not the same as the product with which we desire t o make the comparison, We have in our literature many, many analyses of maple sugars and maple products, and we find that maple products coming from certain sections are quite different in composition from those produced in other parts of the country. It is impossible, in some cases, to reach any conclusion as to whether or not a maple product is adulterated if we must consider in our comparison the wide range of variations which have been found in these products made all over the country, but, if we can limit ourselves to maple products made in Ohio, or maple products made in Yermont, or maple products made in Canada, for the basis of our comparison, if we can classify our unknown sufficiently to eliminate certain kinds of products, we may be able to get a fairly accurate standard or measure. In other words, the first thing t o do with a n unknown is t o classify the product by smell, taste, appearance, analysis, method of manufacture, and knowledge of varieties on the market. Then, when we have classified our product as far as possible, we must limit our standards so that we do not include in them anything but the products properly comparable, and, finally, we must make our comparison as accurately as possible. It is perfectly obvious, it seems t o me, that our measuring rods or standards of comparison must be really measuring rods, and we must not deceive ourselves into thinking that they are real when as a matter of fact they are not. I recently read an article in which the man’s success had depended upon his being able to see things as they were, and t o do the obvious thing, but t o do the obvious thing requires two things-knowledge of the situation and thought regarding it, and it seems to me that these are the two things which every food chemist should apply to the question of a proper standard of comparison. CHICAGO
FOOD CONTROL FROM A STATE VIEWPOINT R y DAVIDKLEIX
Chemist, Illinois S t a t e Laboratory
The chemical aspect of state food control work is so intimately connected with the inspection and field investigation phases of the problem that it is not possible to limit the province of the chemist and t o confine the discussion within such bounds. To be sure, the chemist is supposed to analyze the samples sent in by the inspectors, and t o render an opinion upon their compliance with the provisions of the law. But the chemist’s greater contribution t o food control lies in a field not circumscribed by the walls of a laboratory : his sphere of activity should be co-extensive with the boundaries of the state. I refer to the application of scientific principles in the regulation of lood industries, for the method employed in investigating arid controlling a n industry should differ in no essential from the course pursued in carrying out an investigation of some highly theorctical subject in the university. Just as every research problem has its characteristics to which the general principles of scientific procedure must be adapted, so has each state its characteristics which must be taken into consideration. Among these may be
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T H E JOT’RNAL O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
mentioned geographical features (size, climate, location, topography), population and food productivity (kinds and amount), and transportation facilities. The distribution of population is an important item. The problems of controlling the food supply increase in more than a direct ratio to the population gathered into cities. The larger the city, the greater the need for vigorous supervision. It may be argued that the control of city food supplies should be performed by municipal officers. Theoretically, this condition may be the most desirable. Practically, the plan has not been generally successful. The larger cities are bending their efforts towards controlling milk and a few other foods. The smaller communities as a class have not been sufficiently impressed with the need for local food control. Lack of funds, inefficient health departments, indifferent public opinion and local politics are the common causes for failure to supervise the food supply of the municipality. Under such conditions, the state food commissions have a splendid opportunity for municipal surveys, having for their object the educating of the community in matters pertaining to the food supply. Work of this character was attempted last year by the Illinois Food Department, upon the question of small municipality milk supplies. I n a temporary laboratory established in the town to be surveyed, chemical and bacteriological analyses were made of the milk in various stages of its progress from the cow to the consumer. First, the milk was examined as delivered by the dealer to the housewife. Then samples were obtained as served at the restaurants and cafeterias, and as sold by grocers. The condition of the milk as received by the city dairies or as delivered by the railroads was also investigated. Finally, inspections were made of the farms a t milking time, where samples of milk from the individual cows were obtained, as well a s composite tests. I n several instances, the pasteurization process was studied in detail, in order to point out to the owner the causes of the very unsatisfactory product t h a t he was offering under the label “pasteurized milk.” Throughout the work, the findings were not based on a single sample; second, and often, more samples were obtained upon which to base our conclusions. Thus the survey was a more or less complete picture of the condition of the municipal milk from the time of milking to the consumer. The purpose of the survey was not solely regulatory: the educational aspect was not neglected. The conditions surrounding the milk production on the farm were carefully noted, especially of the sources that cause the greatest contamination. The essentials of cleanliness and cold were continually impressed upon the farmers, with surprising improvement of the milk-at least as long as the survey lasted. I n many instances, where pasteurization was practiced by the dealer, the milk was worge after pasteurization than before. Bacteriological investigation easily detected the cause, with the gratifying result that the milk was properly pasteurized. Surveys such as outlined above are expensive financially, and extremely arduous to the men doing the field work. The results were commensurate with the efforts expended on the work. Public sentiment is of slow growth, and official reform is often slower. Hence, a single survey could not be expected to be productive of great improvements. This much has been achieved. One city established a well equipped laboratory t o continue the work. Another city is agitating a new milk ordinance, of a very comprehensive nature. A third city is conducting a survey of its own. I n most cases, much public interest was evinced, which only requires further stimulus to assume tangible form. Requests for similar surveys have been made by other cities. I have dwelt a t some length upon this work because it emphasizes a method of state food coiitrol tending towards the permanent improvement of the food supply in the large cities
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along scientific lines. With the knowledge acquired from the data, it was possible to fix the responsibility of each person who had to do with the milk. Contrast such a plan with one where a few samples of unknown history picked up a t random are sent to a laboratory several hundred miles away, for examination. Not only is it difficult to form correct judgments, but the results of such efforts make little impression. The law of mass action is just as applicable in improving food conditions as in making reactions go in the laboratory. Another example of intensive control may be found in the almost revolutionary changes in the egg industry. A detailed historical development of the situation would be too timeconsuming. Beginning with an investigation of the traffic in rotten eggs among unscrupulous bakers in Chicago, the scope of the inquiry inevitably widened to include the entire method of handling eggs, down to the farm house. Then it passed state bounds and became national, so that to-day the permanent improvement of the egg industry is more than a dream of the conservationist. This again is merely a case of finding the cause, for the observed effect; of getting to the real source of the evil and beginning the correcting there. I n the past, much of the efforts of state officials has been devoted to the regulation of the food entering the state from another state or even a foreign country. Where the product is not of local origin, the‘securing of the necessary evidence, other than analytical information, is very difficult, if not impossible. The attempt of a state official to regulate, a t long range, a foodstuff whose production is entirely beyond his jurisdiction, often results in embarrassment to the official and discredit to food control work. More profitable would be the intensive surveys of home industries. There would be the opportunity to study intimately the various steps in the preparation of the product; to detect intentional or accidental adulteration or manipulation; to determine to what extent deviations from analytical standards are inherent in the process; to investigate seasonal variations in natural products. Such a study could easily lead to improved sanitary handling of the food and to utilization of wasted material. Home industry would be fostered and developed, with the result that the products would enter interstate commerce in better condition, with practically no supervision by the officials of the states in which the product is to be sold. It would place the food official in an authoritative position with respect to the foods produced in his state. Control a t the source would become a reality. The place of the chemist in such a scheme would be one of importance. The present very vexing question of the interpretation of analytical results would be answered with much more assurance and accuracy. Factory practice would be combined with laboratory examination. I n formulating rules for sanitary equipment and conduct of an industry, there would be a solid basis of fact for each regulation, with a clear distinction between essentials and non-essentials. I n every industry there are many who have developed the sales end of the business with practically no regard to the manufacturing side. There are many who have but little knowledge of the nature of the products dealt in, or of the sources of contamination, much less any idea of control. Here is an opportunity for applied science that the state officials have not utilized to the greatest advantage. The educational phase cannot be disassociated from the law enforcement side of food control work. The educational project must always be augmented by the force of the law. Without it, the whole plan will soon become useless, because of the debasing influence of unfair competition. Education and improvement mean nothing to the unscrupulous food manufacturer. But he thoroughly understands that it is up t o him to stay in the procession because the law can compel him t o remain there, if he shows a disposition to fall out of line. I n this brief outline I have tried t o indicate the possibilities
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of chemistry and the allied sciences in the service of food law enforcement and control. A plea is made for the application of the elementary principles of scientific attack t o the large complex problems of food production and distribution. The food control chemist is, or should be, something more t h a n a laboratory analyst. His spheres of labor and of usefulness are co-extensive with the food industries of his state. CHICAGO
FACTORY CONTROL IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CORNSTARCH AND CORN SYRUP By A. P. BRYANT
Chemist, Clinton Sugar Refining Company
The number of industries in which a certain amount of chemical control is exercised is constantly increasing, and in those industries which have a more or less elaborate system the nature of this varies with the nature of the manufacturing process and even in the same line there will be considerable variation in its extent and details. I have been asked t o tell you in a few words something about the chemical control in the manufacture of corn-starch and corn syrup, a n industry which annually uses over ~o,ooo,ooobushels of shelled corn and produces from it a large variety of products, of which starch and corn syrup are the chief. The object to be obtained in a n industry of this sort is the recovery of as much of the starch of the corn as possible and the utilization of t h e remainder of the grain to the best advantage and with the least possible loss. The different steps in the process of obtaining the starch separated from the rest of the corn are all mechanical, but the completeness of separation is controlled only by analyses of the materials a t different stages, the results of which analyses serve as a guide for factory operations. In fact it may be said that these operations are based almost entirely upon the data furnished by the laboratory. It follows, therefore, t h a t it is necessary t o have not only accurate and representative samples, but also quick and accurate methods of analysis. In different factories the details and extent of control will vary somewhat, but the general character is the same. In what follows I shall attempt to describe very briefly the methods more particularly as practiced in one factory. The chemical work will naturally fall under four divisions: ( I ) Examination of supplies and raw products. ( 2 ) Control of factory operations. (3) Examination and standardization of finished products. (4) Special and research work. EXAMINATION O F SUPPLIES A S D RAW PRODUCTS
The extent to which supplies are analyzed and their quality or strength thus controlled will depend upon the extent of laboratory equipment and force; the analyses may be more or less complete and will follow t o a considerable extent similar control in other industries. There mil! be analyses of coal, lubricating oils, and general manufacturing supplies, which in this case include sulfur, soda ash, bone-black, muriatic acid, etc.; and finally the examination of the corn, i. e . , the raw product Each car of corn is carefully sampled and the moisture determined. Also, from time t o time, complete analyses are made of average samples of corn t o determine the a n o u n t of protein, oil, starch, water soluble matter, fiber, and ash present. Upon these determinations are based the comparison of the yields actually obtained with what should have been obtained, as well as the variation in treatment which may be required for most satisfactory operation COSTROL O F PACTORY OPER.4TIONS
The manufacture of corn-starch and corn syrup may be divided into three parts: the soaking of the corn; the separation of the different parts of the corn kernel (germ and oil, hull,
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gluten, and starch) and the manufacture of the finished products from these. The control in the soaking or steeping process consists in the regulation of the strength of the steep water, i. e . , t h e very weak sulfurous acid obtained by burning sulfur in a draft of air and dissolving the sulfur dioxide in a large quantity of water. The amount of sulfur dioxide is determined a t frequent intervals and the relative amount of sulfur burned and water used regulated according to these tests. Later in the process further tests are made t o assure the total elimination of the sulfur dioxide in t h e finished products. This sulfur water is used to keep the corn sweet during t h e period of between one and two days, while it is soaking in warm water preliminary to t h e subsequent operations. These involve first the tearing apart of the soft, soaked corn; then the floating of the germ on a mixture of starch and water and its removal from the rest of the corn; next the grinding of the remaining portion of the corn and the separation of the bran or hull from the starch anti gluten by means of silk covered shakers or reels; and finally the settling of the starch from the gluten on starch tables. These successive steps are all in the wet and are governed by the gravity of thc mixture of starch, gluten and water, and controlled by frequent observation. The completeness of each separation is determined by the analyses of samples, either taken automatically and continuously or a t frequent intervals by a sample carrier. As an example of the way the laboratory results are used a few illustrations may be given. The completeness of the separation of the germ from the rest of the corn is determined by taking a measured amount of germ-freed corn and adding i t to a mixture of salt and water heavy enough t o float any germ which might not have been removed in the factory process. The presence of floating germ indicates t h a t the starch and water was not sufficiently heavy in the factory operations and the gravity is then increased. On the other hand the presence of germ which will not float because it is weighted down with starch and hull indicates that the degerminating mills are not working properly and should be attended to. Again, a sample of the bran from the shakers or reels is tested for its starch content. This indicates the satisfactory or unsatisfactory operation as a whole. A duplicate sample thoroughly washed over silk bolting-cloth and then tested for starch shows whether any improvement t h a t ought to be obtained should be sought for a t the mills by closer grinding, or a t the shaker and reels by more thorough mashing, or both. The satisfactory separation of the starch and gluten is tested by determining the protein in the starch on the one hand and the starch left in the gluten on the other. Some light immature starch granules will of necessity be carried away in suspension with the gluten, but this must be reduced to the lowest possible amount. The starch, which is obtained as the final result of the operations already alluded to, is used for the preparation of the various kinds of starch (such as pearl, lump, powdered, laundry, etc.), for roasting to produce dextrin, or is sent to the refinery t o be made into corn syrup, or corn sugar. The gluten and bran are united, filter-pressed and made into gluten feed. The germ is sent to the oil house from whence, after due time, i t emerges as corn oil and corn oil cake or corn oil cake meal. The control work thus far outlined has to do simply with the completeness of the mechanical operations involved in the separation of the different component parts of the corn. In the refinery on the other hand a chemical change is involved in the hydrolysis of the starch under pressure and in the presence of a trace of hvdrochloric acid. In the manufacture of corn syrup the hydrolysis is carried only to a point where from 40 to 5 0 per cent of the starch has been actually hydrolyzed, the remainder being split up into dextrins. There are found both
