Fundamentals of Chemistry for the Nonmajor in Tertiary Education-Minimum Principles for the Nonscience Specializing Citizen ,
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The Third 198 1 JapanIUSA Seminar Robert C. Brasted University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
In 1964 the first Japan/USA Seminar in Education was held in the town of Biso, near the city of Tokyo. The second in the series was held in 1969 on the campus of the University of California, Lawrence Hall of Science. The third seminar was held at the University of Minnesota in 1981. The participants and observers werechosen by the divisions of chemical education of the Chemical Society of Japan and the American Chemical Society. The participants from Japan were Professor Michinori Oki, Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo; Professor Haruo Hosoya, Ochanomizu University; Dean Ayao Kitahara, Tokyo Science University; Professor Kazuo Saito, Tohoku University, Sendai; Professor Tetsuo Shiba, Osaka University; Dean Takashi Shimozawa, Saitama University; Professor Yoshi Takeuchi, College of General Education, University of Tokyo. The Seminar Program-Its
Plan and Execution
T h e theme and title of the seminar were sueeested during .... a planning session attended by selected members of the respective divisions of chemical education during the Honolulu Congress of 1979. Originally, some 20 topics covering a diversitv of areas relevant to the touic, hut certainly part of the philosophy of any chemistry coirse, were circulated to potential uarticiuants. Thev were invited to indicate those on which they w&ld be willing to compose brief position papers. The Jauanese uroduced both abstracts and full plenary-type papersselected from the original list as well as areas of their own special concern. These position papers and abstracts were circulated to all participants hefore the seminar. The large number of titles and areas were condensed finally to some eight areas, which are listed below.' 1) The intensity or rigor of the introductory course. Seeking a balance
between or among the qualitative and precise mathematical cow cepts. 2) The adequacy or inadequacy of t,ents,manuals, laboratory w o k hooks. or other written materials. oratory.
The Seminar was sponsored and supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, National Science Foundation (Grant SEDS-0214).the American Chemical Society's Division of Chemical Education and its Education Commission. It was endorsed by the International Activities Committee of the American Chemical Society and its Subcommittee on international Education. The CoDrinciDal . . in~ej1lga:orsn p r r Frofrsscr M cmnor Oh an0 Professor Rowri C Brnsien ul :nr nos1 in.;''.Ir. tor .n .em 11 01 M nncsola. Dcpar:nlenl of Chemistry. Journalof Science Education of Japan, 5 [4], 1981 is devoted in its entirety to the plenary addresses of the Japanese participants. The full report of the seminar, including all position papers and an expanded version of the seminar proceedings. is available from RCB at the address noted earlier. See also the last page of this publication. ~~~~
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4) Adaptation of techniques involving recent developments in
5) 6) 7)
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technology (computers and other "hardware" in instruction and learning, video and audio-tapes,programmed instruction, peer instruction, elosed~circuitand other TV applications). Evaluation and testing instruments. The interdisciplinary course or program of instruction. The science-economic-politidinterface as it may be incorporated into chemistry instruction. Case studies as a teaching tool.
Each morning, afternoon, and evening session was coordinated bv a chair and cochair from each countrv. The eveningsession was devoted almost exclusively to a critique, an open period of discussion, enriching and enlarging upon the discussions of the earlier sessions. A rapporteur was designated for each session. When oral comments or remarks were offered by a participant, he or she summarized these remarks on special forms. These were collected hy the rapporteur, edited, and, in turn, formed the foundation for the material that fullows. To appreciate the total program, the reader will benefit from a few comments on the Japanese system of education. High school education through age 17 to 18 is essentially compulsory; this statement is based upon the fact that 98% of the students of this age group are, indeed, in high school. About 37% of the Japanese students are in colleges and universities. About 28% are in four-vear institutions. There are 84 federally supported and 700 privately supported universities. Only a few are locally or prefecturally supported. Parents are pressured to send their children to prestigious high schools. and, in turn. 'those with good acceDtance records to pestigious universities. It is necessary for these institutions to screen students further. Extensive chances are underway in Japan to modify the admission procedur&. The precollege or university course is divided into properties of matter, states such quality that there is little need to repeat the general concepts or principles that are commonly encountered in the lahoratorv of the United States first-vear student. The firit two years in most federallisupported universities are snent in a Colleee of General Education (or iunior-level). preparatory to proceeding to the university itself or seniorlevel institution. Thev are essentially oriented toward the professions, including engineering, chemistry, law, medicine, etc. The two segments of the university are usually physically separated, with different campuses and different faculties (though, to some extent, there is exchange and joint service). The place and faculty most likely to serve the nonmajor course, the theme of the seminar, would be the College of General Education. A member of one of these faculties eloquently summarized the seminar goals and hopes as follows.
Volume 60
Number 1 January 1983
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somewhat uneasy feeling,knowing that the American and Japanese points of view were slightly out of focus. At first we found it difficult to truly understand your nonseience introductory education. It was most fortunate that a site visit was planned to the University of Minnesota since by the first-hand observation we realized far more explicitly the way in which your time, faculties, and facilities, and energy in the nonseience major course are spent. In view of the differences between our two secondarv educa-
ing methodologies. We are convinced that you are seeking and, in some cases, have found what you believe to be best, and appreciate the fact that you are spending your efforts in the realization of these goals. One difference in our educational philosophy stands out, and that is a basic question of, "What is a university?"Ta us, a university is a place where we teach and the students learn if it is their desire. It seems that to you in the United States, auniversity is a place where you teach and the students will learn using a wide range of methods whatsoever they wish. We have, however, a mast basic common philosophy in our education, and that is, we both teach chemistry because we lave the science.
It is interestine that 70% of the annlicants to the universities choose in the entrance test the chemistry section, 50%take the physics section, 40% the biology section, and 20% earth science. In spite of this high percentage taking chemistry, the educators in the universities see the chemistry student evaluating the subject as heing essentially unpopular (the term "hatred" was actuallv used). Probahlv as is the case in our country, the hasic reasoning behind this low profile is environmentally oriented. .A
Distillates Rather than to suggest a series of hard and fast recommendations that would be adhered to and supported by all the participants and which would, a t best, be a shaky sinecure for education for the nonmajor, it was thought better to report on a number of items, issues, and, indeed, some recommendations which seem to be substantive and which might he thought of having been distilled from a wealth of material included in the total report. Certain of these distillations cross the boundaries of the topics that are noted above. Because of the time and space limitations available to the author, it was not considered feasible to ~ r o v i d ehoth full summaries of all material presented as well as "recommendations." 1) It is criticallv that both countries continue . imwortant . the search for the proper course or courses for the nonscientist if we hope to have meaningful judgments made, not only by the citizens of our countries, but also those who are the opinion makers, including legislators, managers, and professionals of all kinds, especially those who are responsible for writing for the mass media. If such courses are to be developed, then those who are interested in their development need encouragement and support-against the pressures for security, stature, or nromotions via research and conventional teachine for the kajor courses. Such teachers will need to be co&nually uodated throueh workshows or other media involvinr Dersons oE similar minbs. The s o k c e of useful materials ayd techniques available for teaching are not in general easily found or referenced. 2) Throughout the history of introductory courses we have been far moie concerned with teaching the facts and theories to students than we have in inculcating attitudes. It is time to change the major emphasis in our instructional programs. We hope that as a result of the deliberations of this seminar we willhave established a starting point, if not change, a t least to bridge what seems tube a gap between the facts and theories and attitudes. 3) The secondary schools of Japan operate a t a higher level in science and mathematics than do comnarahle institutions in the United States. It is strongly urged as a result of this 30
Journal of Chemical Education
seminar that the science and mathematics precollege programs be strengthened in this country to a t least approach the rigor that is found in Japan. It is ironic, and yet comforting, to realize that in Japan, as well as in other countries throughout the world where education is in a high state of development, that educational systems developed under the auspices of the National Science Foundation serve as the basis for much of the chemical instruction in these countries. 4) Both the Japanese and U.S. secondary school teachers would benefit from the strongest possible education in the sciences and mathematics, particularly chemistry. It is a known fact that in the U.S. the number of teachers going into secondary school science and mathematics teaching is dwindling to near the zero point. If we are to maintain the level of inst&ction in the tertiary first-year or introductory course, whether it be for the science student or the so-called nonscience citizen, the best possible instruction is necessary. Whatever steps that are effective (lobbying is necessary) should he initiated to convince the U S . Federal Government to fund special courses of instruction and institutes for the nurnose of trainine and retrainine science and mathematics teaihers a t hoth tge secondary a l d tertiary level. 5 ) It is evident in the U.S (to a somewhat similar though perhaps lesser extent in Japan) that the reward system is woefully inadequate for the teacher a t the tertiary level who is willing and who wishes to devote his or her academic career to instruction in the course that followed the format of the seminar. Such courses are often assigned to unwilling participants or are taught year after year by the same individual or ind~viduals.Such is not in the best interests of maintaining freshness and vigor in any teaching program. 6) The laboratory for the kind of course that was the major theme of the seminar is often either neglected or nonexistent. The student who is not likely to take more courses in science is the person most needful of a laboratory program. Unfortunately, the decision is too often made that a laboratory is of little consequence unless extensive and highly technical experiments are heing conducted. The simplest natural phenomena may prove to be not only illuminating, h u t exciting to the introductory student not wishing to make science a career. A labortory component for the Japanese "nonmajor" course does not seem essential. 7) In hoth (Japan and US.) educational systems, there is ample opportunity to develop nunmajor courses for clientele other than the studentwith little aptitude for mathematics. We may he expending excessive energy on this group. Certainly there are now courses in abundance for the student just entering tertiary education. More attention, for instance, might be given to the mathematically sophisticated student who is in a position to appreciate the beauty of symmetry in molecular structure, hut who needs to know little if any synthetic chemistry or physical data interpretation. Far more cooperation is needed between mathematics and chemistry, biology and chemistry, and engineering and chemistry, to mention but a few interdisciplinary approaches. 8) Successful nonmajor courses have been woven about a multitude of single themes, among them a single element, energy in any one of a variety forms, one or more pharmaceuticals or medicinals, the colloidal state, and biological processes. The success of such programs is often directly related to a single innovator or individual. Unfortunately, the process or course diminishes or disappears from a curriculum when that person either leaves a department or persons of less competence andlor concern assume the responsibility. 9) The world of computers is just now being opened to the students in the nonmaior (as in anv instructional svstem). The need for mutual sharing of programs will increask, and steps are being taken to c~rculateinformation. Diminishing costs of the hardware must he matched with suitable software. An inherent danger is a student (at whatever level) becoming dependent on another's innovation, thus becoming an ao;
tomaton. Quizzes and examinations developed by this technolow must not he of such a nature as to evaluate a student's ahilI'ti to substitute numbers in exercises. Contrariwise, the horizons are unlimited in producing simulations to real life environmental problems, processes that will aid or assist (as in the A of CAI and CAL systems). The diminishing cost of hardware does not eliminate the current problem of diminishing (even vanishing) federal support. 10) Nontraditional and unique systems outside the walls of the college or university for education of the nonmajor are sueeested. It is uossible to make better use of science museum "" displays in chemistry to approach & exceed the effectiveness of those in uhvsics. Inherent difficulties are recoenized, but solutions sh'odd he sought. Traveling 1ahoratoriesLd mobile groups that brine demonstrations to civic croups, as well as secondary schoois, have proven effective &d should he expanded. Such can be supported and organized by state or civic museums of natural history or science museums. 11) An obvious and admittedly important, hut not wellrecognized, part of teaching and learning is the dynamism of the subject. There is a constant change in our discipline as opposed to a certain inactivity in certain other science areas. Both of our countries must find the means-physical and n~rsonnel-to combat the static attitudes that mav creen into the teaching and the teacher, who is unable to keep abreast of the suhiect and the means of nresentine it. It cannot he overstressed that we need to return to the pfograms, summer institutes. academic vear institutes, and other mechanisms
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12) - ~ o ~ irecommended cs for the so-called nonprofessional course are in institutions of hoth countries moving substantially toward those that are environmentally and humanistically or biologically structured. It is deemed unwise to plunge into areas of the hioregime without the foundations that too often are circumvented. Recurring topics in this approach include obvious energy prohlems, hazardous waste and pollution, food production, medicinals, drugs, antifungicides, biological cycles, catalysis, and petroleum and petrochemicals, including something of the industrial interface that so often involves inacromolecules. 13) Two extremes were identified in the production of a nonmaior course. One is the presentation of the entire content, using a combination of case study and environmental (hoth highly nonarithmetic) approaches as contrasted to an essentially sophisticated upper-division course based upon such concepts as mathematics of symmetry. The middle course is,
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by a Japanese participant using the latter, showing how chemical compounds and their symmetry can be discussed with very little background in the hard science, hut a very high degree of sophistication in mathematical background. I t is entirely possible that the quality of science and its instruction need not be sacrificed a t the mathematical altar. 14) The degree to which one can approach the chemistry course in mathematical rigor is ohviously highly dependent upon secondary school preparation. There is nothing new in this deduction. I t is possible that in our educational plan we have overemphasized the elective approach. It is perhaps time for us to revert to the stronger mathematical and science preparation. Success will be dependent upon a resurgence in our college education of skilled teachers of science and mathematics to move into the high schools. 15) The responsibilities of those who write of and about science for consumption by the nontechnical population (an
,,wrwh, I ~ I I I I I ; n.,~irity, ~ r nt ~ u like h 1 1 1 , ~U I tht 1cm.her 14' 111t 11(,11111ai,~r ,.~l~rst.. The .killiuI writvr rnIl>t int.lude t l ~ it d a s of science and not iust results. Deener insights are needed for the former. Our educational system needs a process by which these communicators can be trained without assuming completion of a major curriculum in science. 16) Excentional skills are needed for the several types of ~
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large. The challenge is especially great in the laboratory where the graduate teaching assistant's proficiency must he honed and developed. The intelligent use of the technology of iustruction is advised as noted in other sections of this report. These and other techniques must find their way into the instruction for the minority, underprepared, and disadvantaged students. The Japanese do not report this particular problem. At the expense of redundancy, a few reminders might he brought into focus: (a) careful and proper assignment of senior staff to the nonmajor course, (h) the proper use of tutorials, including Deer svstems. (c) urouer use of common hardware, i moniiors; (d) appropriate written masuch as iLsk ~ \and terials. (e) evaluation procedures and instruments that will
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demonstrations. The skillful teacher will seek other resources than the textbook in instruction a t any level. Since over half of all United States universities and colleges are committed to instructional research in the scienceltechnologylsociety interface, an obvious ohligation exists. A few sources that may provide supplements are noted: (a) Individualized Science Systems (Ginn and Co.) (b) Interdisciplinary Approaches to Chemistry (University of - ~arylandj (c) ALCHEM Materials Project (Frank Jenkins, Alberta, Canada) (d) Interactive Teaching Packages (Johnston and Reid, Giasgow, ~
S?otlandi - ....-..( e ) CHEMCOM Project (ACS-NSF grant) (f) "Practical Applications of Chemistry" (Sourcehaok,VI Inter-
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1968 (i) Chemical Vignettes, Brasted, J. CHEM.EDUC.,1968
17) Experience has shown that interest and enrollment in WIIVII ihe l?ho~r:~tury cwn1xm 111 I- druppttl, ~ l ~ m i ~ rind ~ i ~url ig~torcd. ~ ~ d . ,\11h011ghscmw r x r ~ m ~ ~ ~ t alrddij~g t i u n 1.9 ha&. .kill. IS ncct,s..#ry. llw III
