Fungal Glutathione Transferases as Tools to Explore the Chemical

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Fungal glutathione transferases as tools to explore the chemical diversity of Amazonian wood extractives Thomas Perrot, mathieu schwartz, Fanny Saiag, Guillaume Salzet, Stephane Dumarcay, Frédérique Favier, Philippe Gerardin, Jean-Michel Girardet, Rodnay Sormani, Mélanie Morel-Rouhier, Nadine Amusant, Claude Didierjean, and Eric Gelhaye ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ acssuschemeng.8b02636 • Publication Date (Web): 25 Aug 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on August 27, 2018

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ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering

1 2 3

Fungal glutathione transferases as tools to explore the chemical diversity of Amazonian wood extractives

4 5 6 7

Thomas Perrot†∞, Mathieu Schwartz‡∞, Fanny Saiag†, Guillaume Salzet†, Stéphane Dumarçay§, Frédérique Favier‡, Philippe Gérardin§, Jean-Michel Girardet†, Rodnay Sormani†, Mélanie Morel-Rouhier†, Nadine Amusant¤, Claude Didierjean‡ and Eric Gelhaye†*

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

†

Université de Lorraine, INRA, IAM, F-54000 Nancy, France Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CRM2, F-54000 Nancy, France § Université de Lorraine, INRA, LERMAB, F-54000 Nancy, France ¤ CIRAD, UMR Ecofog, (AgroParisTech, CIRAD, CNRS, INRA, UA) BF701 - 97310 Kourou, cedex –France ‡

*Corresponding author: [email protected] These authors contributed equally to this work.

∞

Keywords Trametes versicolor, Amazonian wood species, Bagassa guianensis, Glutathione transferase, Stilbene

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1

Abstract

2

The natural durability of wood is linked to its chemical composition and in particular the

3

presence of metabolites called extractives that possess often chemical reactivity. To deal with

4

these compounds, wood degraders have developed detoxification systems usually involving

5

enzyme families. Among these enzymes, glutathione transferases (GSTs) are involved in the

6

decrease of the reactivity of toxic compounds. In this study, the hypothesis that the

7

detoxification systems of wood decaying fungi could be indicators of the chemical reactivity

8

of wood extracts has been tested. This approach has been evaluated using thirty-two wood

9

extracts coming from French Guiana species, testing their antimicrobial ability, their

10

antioxidative properties and their reactivity against six GSTs from the white rot Trametes

11

versicolor. From the obtained data, a significant correlation between the antimicrobial and

12

antioxidative properties of the tested wood extracts and GSTs interaction was established. In

13

addition, the chemical analysis performed on one of the most reactive extract (an acetonic

14

extract of Bagassa guianensis) has demonstrated oxyresveratrol as a major constituent. We

15

were able to co-crystallize one GST with this commercially interesting compound. Taken

16

together, the presented data support the hypothesis that detoxifying enzymes could be used to

17

identify presence of molecules of industrial interest in wood extracts.

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1 2 3

Introduction

4

polymers production. Beyond the presence of structural polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose

5

and lignin), wood also contains secondary metabolites, called extractives. The chemical

6

composition of extractives is various and includes terpenes, fatty acids, simple phenols,

7

flavonoids, tannins and stilbenes. Although the functions of these wood molecules often

8

remain unclear, they usually possess properties of interest such as antimicrobial and anti-

9

oxidative activities.1,2 Due to their properties, these compounds could be used for several

10

industrial purposes in particular for wood preservation, crop protection, medicinal treatments

11

or cosmetic.3 However, they could be also a problem for lignocellulosic biomass valorization

12

limiting its enzymatic digestibility.4

13

The diversity and the potential toxicity of these extractives suggest that wood degraders and

14

in particular wood decaying fungi are adapted to the presence of these potential toxic

15

molecules.5 Beyond their extracellular systems, which allow them to degrade lignocellulosic

16

substrates

17

such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) and glutathione transferases (GSTs).5

18

Such extensions are also found in herbivorous insects, these multigenic families playing key

19

functions in the detoxification of plant defence chemicals and also in the evolution of

20

metabolic resistance to chemical insecticides.8 Concerning GSTs, their activity or even their

21

expression are widely used to evaluate physiological and environmental stress of diverse

22

organisms, from mollusc to human.9–11 In wood-decaying fungi, the extension of GST family

23

concerns mainly specific phylogenetically based classes named Ure2p, GST Omega (GSTO)

24

and GSTFuA.12–14 GSTFuA are able to cleave lignin β-O-4 aryl ether bond in the white-rot

25

fungus Dichomitus squalens.15 In addition, GSTOs from Trametes versicolor interact with

26

wood extracts from temperate forest16 and more particularly with polyphenols such as

Wood is a major renewable resource with many fields of application as energy, building or

6,7

, wood-decaying fungi possess indeed extended detoxifying enzyme families,

3 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


1

hydroxylbenzophenones and flavonoids.17 In this context, we postulated that GSTs could be

2

used as tools to identify wood extracts that possess interesting biological properties. To test

3

this hypothesis, we investigated the biochemical interactions between six GSTOs from

4

Trametes versicolor16 and an environmental collection of wood extracts. Trametes versicolor

5

is common and widespread in boreal and temperate northern hemisphere and also occurs in

6

tropical areas of both hemispheres.18 The six studied GST isoforms, which contain a serinyl

7

residue in their active site, belong to the fungal type-III Omega class. The tridimensional

8

structures of two of them, TvGSTO3S and TvGSTO6S, have been recently solved.17 The

9

extracts came from French Guiana woody species, known to be naturally durable against

10

fungi.1,2,19 Using high-throughput biochemical methods, we show here that the chemical

11

interactions of one isoform with the tested wood extracts are highly correlated with the

12

chemical and biological properties (antioxidative and antimicrobial activities) of these

13

compounds. Additional biochemical and structural experiments demonstrated the interactions

14

between TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol, a stilbene largely used by the cosmetic industry

15

supporting the feasibility of our approach.

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1 2 3

Experimental section

4

The solvents used for the extraction step and for the chromatographic fractionation by HPLC

5

are provided from Honeywell and Carlo Erba, respectively.

Chemicals

6 7

Wood extracts

8

Heartwoods from Peltogyne venosa, Dicorynia guianensis, Bagassa guianensis, Hymenaea

9

courbaril, Tabebuia serratifolia, Sextonia rubra, Andira coriacea, Eperua falcata were from

10

commercial origin (Degrad Saramaca’s sawmill, Kourou, French Guiana). All species are

11

well known and used in the building industry because of their exceptional durability against

12

wood-rotting fungi (i.e., with natural durability against fungi rated 1 to 3 on a scale of 5, class

13

1 being the most durable).

14

Each conditioned sample (12% relative humidity) was ground to fine sawdust with particle

15

size between 0.2 to 0.4 mm before extraction. The obtained sawdust was Soxhlet-extracted

16

successively during 24 h using the following solvents: dichloromethane, acetone,

17

toluene/ethanol (2/1, v/v) and water. After each extraction, organic solvents were evaporated

18

under vacuum using a rotary evaporator. Dried extractives were stored in a freezer (-18 °C)

19

before analyses.

20 21

Chromatographic analysis of the Bagassa guianensis heartwood acetonic extract

22

Bagassa guianensis heartwood acetonic extract was fractioned by reverse chromatography

23

(Shimadzu Prominence HPLC system) as previously described.

24

the extract at 92 mg.mL-1 were fractioned onto a Kinetex Biphenyl column (250 × 4.6 mm

25

internal diameter, 5 µm particle size, 10 nm porosity; Phenomenex) previously equilibrated in

26

water containing 0.1%/formic acid. A linear gradient of methanol from 0 to 100% in the


17

12 injections of 80 µL of


1

presence of 0.1% formic acid was applied for 45 min at 1 mL.min-1. Collected fractions (1

2

mL) were dried using a vacuum centrifuge concentrator SpeedVac™ (UniEquip) and then

3

solubilized in 1 mL of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO).

4 5

Chemical characterization of the wood extracts

6

Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometer (GC-MS) allowed the identification and

7

the relative quantification of the different substances present in the wood extracts. Samples

8

were analyzed as trimethylsilyl derivatives using the following procedure. In a screw-capped

9

vial, a sample of about 1 mg of dry extract was dissolved in 100 µL of BSTFA/TMCS 1%

10

(N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide with 1% of trimethylsilyl chloride from Sigma-

11

Aldrich). The solution was vortexed-stirred for about 1 min and heated at 70 °C for 20 h.

12

After evaporation of the silylating reagent, the residue was diluted in 1 ml of ethyl acetate.

13

Silylation is performed to ensure as far as possible the extractives thermal stability in the gas-

14

chromatography temperature conditions, mainly to avoid any decomposition or dehydration

15

side-reactions possibly occuring when hydroxyl groups are free. The GC–MS analysis was

16

performed on a Clarus 600 GC gas chromatograph coupled to a SQ8 mass spectrometer

17

(Perkin-Elmer). Separation was carried out on a 5% diphenyl/95% dimethyl polysiloxane

18

fused-silica capillary column (J&W Scientific DB-5MS, 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm). The

19

injection was performed at 250 °C in the splitless mode with Helium as carrier gas, at a

20

constant flow of 1 mL.min-1. Chromatographic conditions were as follows: initial temperature

21

80 °C, 2 min isothermal conditions, 10 °C.min-1 to 190 °C, 15 °C.min-1 to 280 °C, 10 min

22

isothermal conditions, 10 °C.min-1 to 300 °C, 14 min isothermal conditions. The components

23

ionization was performed by electron impact (70 eV ionization energy) to achieve their

24

identification by mass spectra comparison with the NIST Library. Samples relative


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1

composition in extractives was obtained by the area of each peak determined on the TIC

2

(Total Ion Current) chromatogram divided by the sum of all the detected peaks areas.

3 4

Glutathione transferases

5

GSTs that belong to the omega class have been heterogeneously produced using synthetic

6

genes as described in Deroy et al.16 The synthetic genes have been designed from the

7

sequenced genome and transcriptomic studies of the white-rot Trametes versicolor from the

8

following genes: TvGSTO1S whose the accession number in the JGI database is Tv75639;

9

TvGSTO2S: Tv56280; TvGSTO3S: Tv48691; TvGSTO4S: Tv65402; TvGSTO5S: Tv54358;

10

TvGSTO6S: Tv23671.17

11 12

Fluorescence-based thermal stability assay

13

This assay was performed as described in Deroy et al.16 The denaturation temperature (Td),

14

which corresponds to the temperature where the protein is 50% unfolded, was determined

15

using the first derivative of the obtained data in the presence or in the absence of potential

16

ligands. As reference, experiments were conducted by adding DMSO only, allowing the

17

determination of Td ref. Then, the difference between the denaturation temperature of the

18

protein incubated with wood extracts and with DMSO only (Td ref) were calculated in order

19

to obtain the thermal shift (∆Td). The sum of the absolute values of ∆Td of the six TvGSTOS

20

studied, Σ∆Td, was determined for each wood extract.

21 22

Inhibition kinetics

23

Glutathione transferase activity of TvGSTO2S (10 nM) has been tested using phenethyl

24

isothiocyanate (PEITC) (25–250 µM) and reduced glutathione (GSH) (1 mM) in 100 mM

25

phosphate buffer pH 6.4. The appearance of the glutathionylated product was followed



Page 8 of 30

1

measuring the absorbance at 274 nm in presence and in absence of oxyresveratrol. The

2

catalytic constants (kcat, KM and KI) were calculated using the GraphPad software with the

3

nonlinear regression based on the Michaelis-Menten model and on the mixed model

4

inhibition.

5 6

Real-time molecular interaction study

7

The binding of oxyresveratrol onto TvGSTO2S was investigated in real-time with an MPC-

8

48-2-R1-S biochip placed in a biosensor analyzer switchSENSE® DRX (Dynamic Biosensors

9

GmbH, Planegg, Germany) available at the ASIA platform (Université de Lorraine). The GST

10

was solubilized at 200 nM in 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, containing 40 mM

11

NaCl, 0.05% Tween20, 50 µM EDTA, and 50 µM EGTA (PE40 buffer). The chip is

12

composed of four independent channels, each containing six electrodes (for more information,

13

see Langer et al.).20 Real-time measurements of kinetics responding to changes to the

14

molecular environment upon analyte binding (oxyresveratrol) gave the association kinetics

15

(kon) of the interaction. Oxyresveratrol at 100 µM in PE40 buffer containing 2% DMSO was

16

injected in the fluidic at 5 µL.min-1 for 5 min to a chosen channel of the chip (association

17

kinetics) and then, PE40 buffer containing 2% DMSO was injected 50 µL.min-1 for 30 min

18

(dissociation kinetics). The real-time measurements were determined at 25 °C. Slight release

19

of the GST from the dsDNAs was observed when only buffer was injected in the fluidic and

20

the corresponding signal was subtracted to normalize the signal of the interaction. All curves

21

were

22

switchANALYSIS® software from Dynamic Biosensors.

analyzed

by

nonlinear

fitting

of

single-exponential

23 24

Microbial growth


functions

with

the

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1

The growth of Phanerochaete chrysosporium RP78 (which the genome is available on the

2

website of the Joint Genome Institute, https://genome.jgi.doe.gov/Phchr2/Phchr2.home.html)

3

has been followed by laser nephelometry.21 For inoculum preparation, spores were collected

4

from 8-days-old solid cultures by adding broth followed by gentle scraping of the agar plates.

5

The wells of the microplates were filled as previously.22 Growth was automatically recorded

6

for ≥ 30 h at 37 °C using a nephelometric reader (NEPHELOstar Galaxy, BMG Labtech,

7

Offenburg, Germany). The maximal growth rates (µmax) were determined from the growth

8

curves measuring the maximal slope as described by Joubert et al.21

9

The bacterial strains, Collimonas pratensis Ter91 and Burkholderia fungorum LMG 16225

10

have been isolated from Phanerochaete chrysosporium mycosphere during a microcosm

11

experiment on beech.23,24 Growth was automatically recorded for ≥ 48 h at 25 °C using a

12

nephelometric reader. The growth rates have been determined from the growth curves

13

measuring the maximal slope during the exponential phase.

14

The growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain 23344C) was studied in presence of fractions

15

from the acetonic extract of Bagassa guianensis. For each fraction, the growth tests have been

16

performed in 198 µL of culture of S. cerevisiae in liquid YPD medium (Yeast, Peptone and

17

D-glucose). 2 µL of fraction has been added in the culture and the growth has been analyzed

18

by following the turbidimetry at 600 nm during 36 h (one read per 30 min). A control

19

condition by testing the effect of the solvent (2 µL of DMSO) has been also done.

20

The inhibition index (I) of the microbial growth was calculated using the following formula: I

21

= 1- (µmax/µmaxcontrol) (1), where µmax and µmaxcontrol correspond to the maximal growth rate

22

obtained in presence and in absence of wood extracts respectively.

23 24

Antioxidative properties

25

Reducing power activity



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25

1

To determine the reducing activity of each wood extract, the method of Oyaizu

2

and Chen26 was used as described in Canabady-Rochelle et al.27 The reducing power is

3

expressed according to a calibration curve based on the using of ascorbic acid (equivalent of

4

ascorbic acid in µg.L-1).

5

Phenolic content

6

Total phenolic content of the tested wood extract was estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu

7

method adapted to a 96-well microplate. 28 The absorbance was measured at 735 nm by using

8

a microplate reader (EnSight™ Multimode Plate Reader, PerkinElmer®). The phenolic

9

content is expressed according to a calibration curve based on the using of gallic acid

10

and Yen

(equivalent of gallic acid in µg.L-1).

11 12

Statistical analysis

13

All statistical analysis including Pearson correlations between variables, principal component

14

analysis, ANOVA and Tukey’s test have been obtained from the XLSTAT software

15

(XLSTAT 2017 Microsoft Excel, Addinsoft, France, 2017). To perform the Pearson

16

correlations, the antimicrobial properties were represented by the inhibition index (I, as

17

described above), the absolute values of thermal shifts (|∆Td|) were required and the values

18

of the phenolic content and the reductase activity were not modified (corresponding in

19

equivalent of gallic acid and ascorbic acid in µg.L-1, respectively). These data have been also

20

used for the principal component analysis.

21 22

Crystallographic study

23

Crystallogenesis

24

A first screening of 288 crystallization conditions was carried out at the CRM2

25

crystallogenesis platform (Université de Lorraine) by using the vapour diffusion method with

26

an Oryx 8 crystallogenesis robot (Douglas Instrument). Crystals were optimized in Linbro 10 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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1

plates using the hanging-drop method at 4 °C. The best crystals of TvGSTO2S were obtained

2

by mixing 1 µL of protein (18 g.L-1) with 0.2 µL of crystal seed stock (prepared by crushing

3

small crystals obtained during the screening step) and 1 µL of a solution containing 10.7%

4

PEG 4000, 0.1 M HEPES-MES buffer at pH 7.0 (in the ratio 4:6, respectively), 0.05 M

5

sodium acetate and 0.05 M magnesium chloride. The reservoir contained 1 mL of the same

6

crystallization condition. Crystals of TvGSTO2S-oxyresveratrol complex were prepared by

7

the ‘dry soaking method’ as explained previously.17 Briefly, 0.1 µL of commercial

8

oxyresveratrol (100 mM in DMSO) was deposited on a cover slide and left to complete

9

evaporation. Then, one TvGSTO2S crystal together with 1 µL of its mother liquor was

10

dispensed on the dried oxyresveratrol. After one-day incubation, the crystal did not show any

11

damage and was flash frozen after a quick soaking in its mother liquor supplemented with

12

20% glycerol.

13 14

Data collection, processing and refinement

15

Preliminary X-ray diffraction experiments were carried out in-house on an Agilent

16

SuperNova diffractometer (Oxford Diffraction) equipped with a CCD detector. Data

17

collections were carried out at the ESRF, on beamline FIP BM30A (Grenoble, France).

18

TvGSTO2S crystals diffracted up to 2.19 Å. Data sets were indexed and integrated with

19

XDS,29 and scaled and merged with Aimless from the CCP4 suite.30 The structure of

20

TvGSTO2S was solved by molecular replacement using MOLREP with the coordinates of

21

Trametes versicolor GSTO3S (PDB code 6F43) as the search model. File of restraints for

22

oxyresveratrol

23

http://grade.globalphasing.org/cgi-bin/grade/server.cgi).

24

PHENIX31 and manually improved with COOT.32 Validation of all structures was performed

25

with MolProbity33 and the PDB validation service (http://validate.wwpdb.org). Coordinates

was

generated

with

the

GRADE Structures


server were

refined

(URL with


1

and structure factors have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank under accession codes

2

6GIB and 6GIC.

3


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1 2 3

Results

4

Heartwoods of Peltogyne venosa, Dicorynia guianensis, Bagassa guianensis, Hymenaea

5

courbaril, Tabeuia serratifolia, Sextonia rubra, Andira coriacea, Eperua falcata and Eperua

6

grandiflora, have been sequentially extracted using four solvents exhibiting different

7

polarities (dichloromethane, acetone, toluene/ethanol and water). The interactions between the

8

thirty-two obtained wood extracts and the six GSTs from Trametes versicolor were studied

9

using the thermal shift assay (TSA), a high-throughput ligand-screening method based on the

10

modification of protein thermal denaturation. Along a gradient of temperature, the

11

denaturation is followed by monitoring fluorescence enhancement of a probe (SYPRO®

12

Orange) that binds to protein hydrophobic patches upon denaturation process. This TSA

13

method has been successfully used to detect interactions between proteins and libraries of

14

molecules.16,17 The shift of the thermal denaturation temperature (∆Td) induced by the tested

15

wood extract dissolved in DMSO was measured in comparison to a control performed with

16

pure DMSO. Each enzyme displays a specific pattern of interactions with the tested extracts

17

(Table S1). The interactions between each isoform and the tested extracts are not significantly

18

related to the used extraction solvent (Tukey’s test, p > 0.05). Nevertheless, the global

19

reactivity of the six isoforms, named Σ|∆Td|, (corresponding to the sum of the absolute

20

values of ∆Td, which have been measured for all isoforms) was significantly correlated to the

21

polarity of the used solvent. The dichloromethane extracts induced indeed a significantly

22

higher Σ|∆Td| than the other extracts (Tukey’s Test, p=0.015), suggesting that the

23

hydrophobic compounds extracted with this solvent have a significant effect on the thermal

24

stability of the GSTs. As shown for Eperua falcata dichloromethane extract, these

25

hydrophobic molecules could increase or decrease the thermal denaturation temperature

26

depending on the considered proteins. This extract decreased indeed the thermal stability of

Interactions between wood extracts and TvGSTOs



1

TvGSTO3S (∆Td = -7.5 °C) and TvGSTO5S (∆Td = -2.1 °C), and had a positive effect on the

2

thermal stability of TvGSTO1S (∆Td = +3.7 °C) and TvGSTO6S (∆Td = +3.0 °C). We chose

3

not to consider these potential opposite effects and the following analysis was done using the

4

absolute value of the detected ∆Td ( ∆Td).

5 6

Properties of wood extracts

7

The antimicrobial activity of the extracts was tested against a wood decaying basidiomycete

8

Phanerochaete chrysosporium and two bacterial strains isolated from degraded wood,

9

Collimonas pratensis Ter91 and Burkholderia fungorum LMG 16225.23,24 The three

10

organisms were cultivated in the presence or in the absence of the tested wood extracts. The

11

potential antimicrobial effect was calculated from maximal growth rates measured in the

12

presence or in the absence of the tested extracts. A statistical analysis of the obtained data

13

(Table S1) shows that these “antimicrobial” variables are significantly correlated (Table 1),

14

with a Pearson correlation coefficient higher between both bacterial variables (r = 0.805, p =

15

1.7 10-8).

16

To investigate the antioxidant activity, two distinct methods were used: determination of

17

phenolic content and reductive abilities. These “antioxidative variables” revealed to be

18

strongly correlated (r = 0.953, p = 10-12) (Table 1).

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Table 1: Pearson coefficients showing the correlation between variables. Values in bold have p-values lower to the significant threshold (p < 0.05) and are significantly different. Symbol (I) corresponds to the inhibition index on the studied microorganisms: Bf for Bacillus fungorum, Cp for Collimonas pratensis and Pc for Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The absolute values of thermal shift (|∆Td|) for the six isoforms TvGSTO1S (1), TvGSTO2S (2), TvGSTO3S (3), TvGSTO4S (4), TvGSTO5S (5), TvGSTO6S (6) have been required for performing this Pearson correlation. For the phenolic content (AP) and the reductase activity (AR), the same values were used (equivalent of gallic acid and of ascorbic acid in µg.L-1). Variables

(I) Bf

(I) Cp

(I) Pc

|∆Td| 1

|∆Td| 2

|∆Td| 3

|∆Td| 4

|∆Td| 5

|∆Td| 6

AP

AR

(I) Bf

1

0.805

0.606

-0.199

0.606

-0.119

0.178

0.319

0.072

0.194

0.201

1

0.486

-0.239

0.464

-0.067

0.303

0.248

-0.072

0.026

0.038

1

-0.132

0.519

-0.029

0.167

0.225

0.041

0.034

0.005

1

0.181

0.730

0.091

0.309

0.418

-0.088

-0.073

1

-0.002

0.052

0.529

0.213

0.347

0.375

1

0.327

0.134

0.437

-0.313

-0.321

1

0.083

0.176

-0.096

-0.072

1

-0.139

-0.137

-0.035

1

0.265

0.195

1

0.953

(I) Cp (I) Pc |∆Td| 1 |∆Td| 2 |∆Td| 3 |∆Td| 4 |∆Td| 5 |∆Td| 6 AP AR

1

11 12 13

Relationship between thermal responses of TvGSTOs and the biological properties of

14

wood extract

15

Potential correlations between “TvGSTOS” variables (defined as the absolute value of the

16

detected ∆Td for a specific isoform) and antioxidative and antimicrobial variables were

17

investigated (Table 1). No significant correlation was detected with five isoforms

18

(TvGSTO1S, 3S, 4S, 5S and 6S). In contrast, interactions between “TvGSTO2S” variable and

19

the tested wood extracts are clearly related to the chemical properties of the latter (Table 1).

20

“TvGSTO2S” variable is indeed correlated both to the “antioxidative variables” (phenolic

21

content and reductase activity; r = 0.347, p = 0.048 and r = 0.375, p = 0.031, respectively) and



1

to the “antimicrobial variables” (r = 0.519, p = 0.002; r = 0.606, p =0.001 and r = 0.464, p =

2

0.007, for P. chrysosporium, B. fungorum and C. pratensis, respectively) (Table 1).

3 4

A principal component (PC) analysis was also performed using all these data (Fig. 1).

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Figure 1: Principal component (PC) analysis performed using “|∆Td| TvGSTO1-6S”, “antimicrobial” and “antioxidative” variables (Table S1) obtained with the following wood extracts. For each wood extract, absolute values of thermal shifts for the six isoforms were required for this PC. According to the protein (TvGSTO1-6S), the variables are represented by “|∆Td| 1”, “|∆Td| 2”, “|∆Td| 3”, “|∆Td| 4”, “|∆Td| 5” and “|∆Td| 6”. The inhibition indexes on the growth of the three microorganisms were used and the variables are represented in blue: (I) Pc for the inhibition on the growth of P. chrysosporium, (I) Cp for C. pratensis and (I) Bf for B. fungorum. Concerning both antioxidative variables, the phenolic content (AP) and the reductase activity (AR) are symbolized in black. Each number corresponds to a wood extract (see Table S1). According to the solvent, the colour is different: green for dichloromethane, orange for acetone, purple for the mix toluene/ethanol and blue for water. The number 0 corresponds to the control condition (for dimethyl sulfoxide).

18 19 20

Three PCs explained approximately 69.25% of the total variance among the 32 tested

21

extracts. Of these, the first two PCs explained approximately 50.76% of the total variance.

22

The overall distribution of the wood extracts on the graph does not show a clear clustering,

23

although all the samples are clearly distinguishable of the control (DMSO). Briefly, the PC

24

analysis showed that the coordinates of several wood extracts obtained with water, mix


Page 16 of 30

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1

toluene/ethanol and acetone were near between them. In contrast, it appeared that the

2

coordinates of wood extracts obtained with dichloromethane were different and were

3

heterogeneously distributed. Interestingly the acetonic and the toluene/ethanolic extracts of

4

Bagassa guianensis differ from the others (Fig.1 n° 9 and 11), displaying both antifungal and

5

antibacterial properties and modifying the thermal stability of TvGSTO2S (∆Td = +5.25 °C,

6

∆Td = +2.00 °C respectively).

7

Taken together, these data suggested that the detected interactions between wood extracts and

8

TvGSTO2S could be used to detect molecules with biological properties. The acetonic extract

9

of Bagassa guianensis was then chosen to focus this work on the potential interactions with

10

TvGSTO2S.

11 12

Study of the chemical composition and properties of the acetonic extract of Bagassa

13

guianensis

14

The chemical composition of the acetonic extract of Bagassa guianensis was first analyzed by

15

GC-MS, showing the presence of oxyresveratrol as the main product (peak at 21.82 min; Fig.

16

S1) in accordance with previous studies.34 The other peaks (19.42, 20.81, 21.10, 22.46 and

17

25.72 min) revealed the presence of derivatives of oxyresveratrol: resveratrol and cyclisation

18

forms of oxyresveratrol. After separation of the extract by reversed-phase high-performance

19

liquid chromatography (HPLC), the harvested fractions were evaporated. The fractions were

20

solubilized in DMSO and then tested for the content of phenolic compounds, the reducing

21

power, their antimicrobial activity (in this case, the inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

22

growth rate) and their interactions with TvGSTO2S (Table S2). As shown in Figure 2, a

23

strong correlation between the antioxidative properties of the fractions and their interactions

24

with TvGSTO2S was observed (r = 0.957, p = 10-12).

25



1 2 3 4

Figure 2: Thermal effects on TvGSTO2S and reductase activity of fractions from acetonic heartwood extract of Bagassa guaianensis. Blue bars represent the reductase activity (converted in equivalent of ascorbic acid in mg.L-1) and orange line corresponds to the thermal shifts (∆Td, in °C) induced by each fraction.

5 6

Interactions with TvGSTO2S revealed mainly the presence of two pools of fractions centered

7

around fractions 22 and 41, respectively, that induced an increase of the thermal stability of

8

the protein (Fig. 2). The GC-MS analysis revealed that the fraction 22 mainly contained

9

oxyresveratrol and dihydromorin, and the fraction 41 contained 6-O-methyl-moracin N. All

10

these compounds have been previously detected in Bagassa guianensis extract.34 6-O-methyl-

11

moracin N has been shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity and dihydromorin a tyrosinase

12

inhibitory effect.19,35 Due to the major presence of oxyresveratrol in this extract, we choose to

13

test the pure compound. For the next of this work, a biochemical and structural study has been

14

conducted to study the interactions between TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol at the molecular

15

level.

16 17

Characterization of the interaction between TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol

18

To better understand the effect of oxyresveratrol on the denaturation temperature (∆Td) of

19

TvGSTO2S, we tested several concentrations of the stilbene with the same method (Fig. 3).

20 21 18 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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1 2 3

Figure 3: Stabilizing effects of oxyresveratrol on TvGSTO2S. Thermal shifts (∆Td) are given in °C. For each tested concentration of oxyresveratrol, the final concentration of protein was 10 µM.

4 5

∆Td of TvGSTO2S is significantly modified with at least 8 µM of oxyresveratrol (∆Td = +1.55

6

°C). This approach did not allow an accurate determination of the apparent affinity of

7

TvGSTO2S for oxyresveratrol.36 Then an enzymatic approach has been performed using the

8

ability of TvGSTO2S to transfer glutathione on PEITC. In absence of oxyresveratrol, the

9

following parameters have been obtained: KM = 29.71 ± 2.84 µM and kcat = 12.01 ± 0.26 s-1,

10

confirming the ability of TvGSTO2S to transfer efficiently glutathione on this substrate.16

11

This activity is strongly inhibited in presence of oxyresveratrol (KI of 3.79 ± 1.51 µM),

12

confirming that the stilbene is able to bind to the studied protein. Next in the study of

13

interactions between TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol, an association constant kon of 141 ± 18

14

M-1.s-1 was determined using the switchSENSE® technology (Fig. S2). However, the

15

dissociation constant koff was not determined as the oxyresveratrol and the protein formed a

16

highly stable complex (no dissociation observed, Fig. S2). In addition, no modification of the

17

stilbene mediated by the TvGSTO2S was observed in the presence or in the absence of

18

glutathione, suggesting that the stilbene is not a substrate for the protein.

19

The interactions between TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol were also studied at the atomic

20

level. TvGSTO2S crystal structure was solved at 2.19 Å (Table S5). The protein adopts a



1

dimeric arrangement with its monomers exhibiting the characteristic traits of the cytosolic

2

GST fold (Fig. 4).

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Figure 4. Crystal structure of TvGSTO2S complexed with trans and cis oxyresveratrol. (A) Oxyresveratrol in trans configuration bound to TvGSTO2S hydrophobic site. (B) and (C) Overall views of TvGSTO2S structure complexed with trans and cis oxyresveratrol. Secondary structure elements are displayed on panel B. N-terminal domain is colored cyan and C-terminal domain is colored pale yellow. (D) Oxyresveratrol in cis configuration bound to TvGSTO2S ligandin site at the dimer interface. Topological structures of trans and cis oxyresveratrol are shown in corresponding panels. Ligands are represented as green sticks and spheres. Polar interactions are represented as dashed lines. 2mFo-DFc omit maps calculated by PHENIX are displayed at 1.0σ around ligands.

13 14


Page 20 of 30

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1

Beside its conserved two-domain organization (N-terminal domain, β1α1β2α2β3β4α3,

2

residues Cys3-Ala95; C-terminal domain, α4α5α6α6’α7α8α9, Lys96-Arg236) TvGSTO2S

3

shows the specificities of the fungal type-III Omega class, an extended loop between strands

4

β3 and β4, a potential catalytic serine at the N-terminus of helix α1, and an additional helix

5

α6’.17 TvGSTO2S shares the same overall structure than its previously studied isoforms

6

TvGSTO3S (rmsd of 1.366 Å for 416 aligned Cα, PDB code 6F43)17 and TvGSTO6S (rmsd

7

of 2.223 Å for 460 aligned Cα, PDB code 6F70).17

8

The TvGSTO2S crystal soaked with oxyresveratrol resulted in a structure without major

9

conformational changes with respect to the apo form. However, two main continuous regions

10

were detected in the Fo-Fc electron density map, corresponding to two oxyresveratrol

11

molecules. The first one binds in the hydrophobic site (H site) of monomer B of TvGSTO2S

12

(Fig. 4). In this case, the ligand is in a native trans configuration and is stabilized in a slit

13

formed by the hydrophobic side-chains of Phe123, Phe128 and Phe167. Oxyresveratrol

14

molecule in trans configuration interacts by H-bond with Asp121 and Tyr174 from helix α4

15

and α6, respectively. The second molecule of oxyresveratrol binds in the site known as

16

ligandin site (L site) at the TvGSTO2S dimer interface. Here it adopts a cis configuration

17

according to the aromatic groups positioned on the same side of the central double bond (Fig.

18

4). Stilbenes, including oxyresveratrol, are known to undergo trans/cis isomerization which

19

can be achieved by light irradiation.

20

drying step before crystal dry-soaking. Oxyresveratrol molecule in cis configuration is well

21

stabilized by four H-bonds established between the ligand hydroxy groups and the side chains

22

of Glu86 (monomer A), Glu86 (B), Asn117 (A) and Asn117 (B) located at the dimer

23

interface. These structural results support the strong interaction measured between

24

TvGSTO2S and oxyresveratrol and suggest that this GST is able to interact with both cis and

25

trans isomers at different sites.

37

This likely occurred in our experiment during the



Page 22 of 30

1 2

Discussion

3

Forests, and in particular tropical forests, are reservoirs of amazing biodiversity, where trees

4

play a major role in interacting with a large number of biological partners. These interactions

5

are often due to the exchange of molecular signals. The molecular diversity of the involved

6

compounds is linked to the extraordinary variability of secondary plant metabolism. For

7

centuries, humans have used this diversity to obtain compounds or mixtures of compounds

8

with antimicrobial and insecticidal activity. This is the case, for instance, of wood extractives.

9

Depending on the considered species, these compounds may have functions in wood

10

durability and may also exhibit antimicrobial and insecticidal activities. Numerous studies

11

have indeed been devoted to the identification and characterization of these molecules.1,3,38–40

12

On another hand, the wood decayers, microorganisms and insects, have developed efficient

13

detoxification systems to deal with these compounds and also to use wood as source of

14

nutriments. From comparative genomic and previously from functional studies, it appeared

15

that these systems are mainly constituted of multigenic families.5,7,41 The resulting proteins

16

are

17

monooxygenases), or in decrease of their chemical reactivity by addition of sugars or

18

glutathione. These latest reactions are catalysed by glycosyl or glutathione transferases

19

depending on the chemical nature of the considered adduct.

20

The relationship between both diversities, i.e. wood extractives and detoxification enzymes,

21

seems obvious and suggests that the latter could be used to study the chemical diversity of

22

wood extracts and then to identify molecules that possess interesting properties for industry

23

such as antimicrobial or antioxidative properties. In the present study, we have validated this

24

hypothesis studying interactions between six GSTs from the white-rot Trametes versicolor

25

and a library of wood extracts. The thermal shift assay has been used, this method allowing a

involved

either in

oxidation

of

wood

metabolites (e.g.


cytochrome

P450

Page 23 of 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60


1

fast screening of hundreds of samples using few amounts (µg) of extracts. The obtained

2

results demonstrated that TvGSTOSs were more prone to interact with hydrophobic

3

compounds since dichloromethane extracts induced the highest shifts of the thermal

4

denaturation temperatures. The six proteins show a specific pattern of interactions as

5

previously shown with libraries of molecules.17 Interestingly, the thermal stability of

6

TvGSTO2S in presence of the extracts is significantly correlated to antimicrobial and

7

antioxidative properties of the latter. The interaction could occur at different sites of the

8

protein. A trans oxyresveratrol molecule occupies the active site (H-site) while a cis

9

oxyresveratrol molecule occupies the dimer interface (L-site). These two sites were already

10

described as binding sites for non-catalytic ligand in TvGSTOs.17 These observations agree

11

with the assumed ligandin function of GSTs that can facilitate the sequestration and the

12

transport of hydrophobic molecules.42,43 This ligandin property could be due to particular sites

13

found at the dimer interface as demonstrated here for TvGSTO2S.44,45 The presence of this L-

14

site increases by this way the number of potential interactions of GSTs with ligands. In

15

accordance with the obtained biochemical data, binding of oxyresveratrol at the H-site could

16

be responsible for the inhibition of TvGSTO2S glutathionylation activity. Nevertheless,

17

further experiments are required to evaluate the affinity of the L-site for oxyresveratrol and

18

the consequences of this binding on the activity of the enzyme.

19

As detoxification enzymes, we postulated that the substrates or ligands of GSTs could have

20

interesting properties with potential industrial applications. It is the case of oxyresveratrol,

21

which has been studied for its multiple properties such as anti-inflammatory activity46,

22

antioxidative activity47 and antibacterial activity.48 Through the example of TvGSTO2S and

23

oxyresveratrol, the obtained data support the hypothesis that the detoxification systems of

24

wood decayers, and in particular glutathione transferases could be used to identify and

25

characterize wood molecules with potential interest. In the same time, this approach should



1

give insights on the chemical environment encountered by the studied organisms and then

2

increase our understanding of their adaptation to their trophic features.

3 4

Author Contributions Statement

5

EG, CD, FF and NA developed the concept and supervised this study. TP, MS, SD, MMR,

6

FS, RS, GS performed the experiments, and interpreted the data. All the authors participated

7

in manuscript writing. EG, CD, PG and NA acquired the funding. All authors read and

8

approved the final manuscript.

9 10

Acknowledgements

11

We thank Solène Telliez, Tiphaine Dhalleine and Sandrine Mathiot for technical assistance.

12

We thank Sophie Mieszkin for helpful discussion concerning the bacterial strains. A sincere

13

thank you to Pr. Jean-Pierre Jacquot for constructive criticism of the manuscript. The authors

14

would like to thank ESRF for beamtime, and the staff of beamlines BM30A for data

15

collections. The authors appreciated the access to the ‘Plateforme de mesures de diffraction

16

X’ of the University of Lorraine with crystal testing.

17 18

Funding

19

This study was funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR-11-LAS-0002-01), the

20

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the University of Lorraine and the Région

21

Grand Est (MS and TP Grants, PEPS-Mirabelle 2016, CPER 2014-2020, Program

22

“Equipement mi-lourd 2016”). The authors acknowledge financial support from the "Impact

23

Biomolecules" project of the "Lorraine Université d'Excellence"(Investissements d’avenir –

24

ANR).

25 24 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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1

Supporting Information

2

A single file entitled “Supporting_Information” accompanies this paper and contains the

3

supplementary Tables S1, S2, S3 and the supplementary Figures S1, S2.

4

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TOC/Abstract Graphic.

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Synopsis.

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A fungal glutathione transferase can be used as a tool to investigate the chemical reactivity of

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wood extracts.


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Fungal Glutathione Transferases as Tools to Explore the Chemical

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