ARTICLE pubs.acs.org/Langmuir
In Situ Studies of the Adsorption Kinetics of 4-Nitrobenzenediazonium Salt on Gold Dilushan R. Jayasundara,† Ronan J. Cullen,† Laura Soldi,† and Paula E. Colavita*,†,‡ † ‡
School of Chemistry, University of Dublin Trinity College, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland ABSTRACT: Self-assembled organic layers are an important tool for modifying surfaces in a range of applications in materials science. Covalent modification of metal surfaces with aryldiazonium cations has attracted much attention primarily because this reaction offers a route for spontaneously grafting a variety of aromatic moieties from solution with high yield. We have investigated the kinetics of this process by performing real-time, in situ nanogravimetric measurements. The spontaneous grafting of 4-nitrobenzene diazonium salts onto gold electrodes was studied via quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) from aqueous solutions of the salt at varying concentrations. The concentration dependence of the grafting rate within the first 10 min is best modeled by assuming a reversible adsorption process with free energy comparable to that reported for arylthiols self-assembled on gold. Multilayer formation was observed after extended grafting times and was found to be favored by increasing bulk concentrations of the diazonium salt. Modified gold surfaces were characterized ex situ with cyclic voltammetry, infrared reflection absorbance spectroscopy, and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. Based on the experimentally determined free energy of adsorption and on the observed grafting rates, we discuss a proposed mechanism for aryldiazonium chemisorption.
1. INTRODUCTION The ability to form molecular organic coatings bearing specific functional groups via self-assembly has been the subject of intense investigation for more than two decades. Molecular self-assembly on metal substrates has allowed researchers to prepare well-defined surfaces for numerous applications ranging from chemical sensors to organic electronic devices.15 Furthermore, self-assembled organic/metal interfaces constitute excellent model systems for fundamental studies of reactions at surfaces, adhesion, adsorption, and charge transfer.68 Covalent modification of metal surfaces with aryldiazonium salts has emerged as an important reaction for the immobilization of a variety of aromatic chemical moieties from solution with high yield.912 Aryldiazonium salts can be grafted via immersion of a metallic surface in a solution of these compounds, in either aqueous or organic solvents. The effectiveness of this metal functionalization strategy has led to an increased interest in its use for nanomaterial synthesis and modification.1316 In the case of gold substrates, it has recently been demonstrated that spontaneous grafting occurs via reduction of aryldiazonium by the gold surface17 and leads to formation of AuC bonds18 according to Scheme 1, as initially hypothesized when the reaction was first reported.19 The simplicity of aryldiazonium spontaneous grafting and the robustness of the resulting covalent AuC anchoring bond20 offer considerable practical advantages for applications in micropatterning,21 sensors and surface modification/capping of r 2011 American Chemical Society
Scheme 1. Net Chemisorption Reaction for 4-Nitrobenzenediazonium Salts17,18
gold nanomaterials.13,18 For many of these applications, it is critical to achieve control over molecular coverage and surface defect density, which in turn requires a fundamental knowledge of experimental factors controlling kinetics and reaction yields. In the case of aryldiazonium grafting, this is of particular concern, since aryl radicals formed during the reaction are known to graft on surface-bound aryl groups, resulting in multilayer formation and poorly defined, inhomogeneous films.22 Recent work by Downard and co-workers demonstrated that the structure of organic layers obtained via spontaneous grafting on metals varies considerably depending on deposition time and solvent.17 The study was carried out in weakly acidic solutions and provided evidence for the existence of two stages in the growth rate or aryldiazonium layers: a fast initial deposition followed by a slower increase in coverage that saturates at approximately three Received: July 24, 2011 Revised: September 14, 2011 Published: September 15, 2011 13029
dx.doi.org/10.1021/la202862p | Langmuir 2011, 27, 13029–13036
Langmuir molecular layers. However, very little is still known about the kinetics of aryldiazonium chemisorption on gold and, importantly, whether it is possible to use kinetics to control the final structure/coverage of the organic layer. We have carried out an investigation of the kinetics of adsorption of 4-nitrobenzenediazonium (pNBD) on gold in aqueous solutions using quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) techniques. The ability of a QCM to detect mass changes at a surface with nanogram resolution allowed us to monitor the adsorption process by directly determining the change in deposited mass during pNBD layer growth. QCM experiments in liquids have been used in order to monitor the kinetics of other adsorption reactions, such as those of thiolated molecules on gold, and have provided valuable information for determining adsorption rates, thermodynamics of adsorption, and the mechanism of self-assembly.2331 Quantitative estimates of the surface coverage of pNBD layers are typically obtained in the literature by integration of the voltammetric signal associated with the reduction of nitrophenyl groups; this technique has been shown to be often unreliable because not all surface bound nitrophenyl groups are necessarily also electrochemically accessible.11,32,33 Nanogravimetric measurements, on the other hand, provide a direct quantitative estimate of the accumulated mass at the surface, in situ, and in real time and are therefore ideally suited to providing kinetic information on pNBD grafting reactions. We monitored adsorption reactions in aqueous solution via QCM at varying pNBD concentrations, and found that the grafting rate at early times could be modeled as a reversible Langmuir adsorption process. Adsorption rate constants were used to calculate a free energy of adsorption for pNBD on gold. These results were supported also by structural characterization of pNBD layers using a combination of electrochemistry, infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS).
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION 2.1. Chemicals and Materials. Acetonitrile (ACN, HPLC grade, Fisher), sodium perchlorate (Sigma), absolute ethanol (EtOH), methanol (semiconductor grade, Aldrich), hydrogen peroxide (35%, Sigma), sulfuric acid (Aldrich), acetone (HPLC grade, Aldrich), and 4-nitrobenzenediazonium tetraflouroborate (pNBD, Aldrich) were used as received. Deionized water was used for all aqueous solutions. All glassware and QCM cells were cleaned with piranha solution (3:1, H2SO4 to H2O2) before use (WARNING: Piranha solution should be handled with caution; it is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with organic materials. It also presents an explosion danger. All work should be performed under a fume hood). pNBD solutions were made to the required concentration and deareated with Ar; pNBD solutions were used for grafting within 1 h of being prepared to ensure that the salt was not hydrolyzed significantly during experiments.34 2.2. Sample Characterization. QCM was used to monitor the kinetics of spontaneous grafting on gold surfaces. Crystals of 10 MHz with 100 nm thick vapor-deposited gold electrodes were used in this study (International Crystal Manufacturing). Crystals were electrochemically cleaned in a 0.1 M H2SO4 solution: the potential of the gold crystal was repeatedly cycled between 0.3 and 1.5 V (vs Ag/AgCl) until no changes in the Au oxidation/reduction peaks were observed.35 The electrode was then washed with copious amounts of deionized water and dried in a stream of Ar before being inserted into a static cell (International Crystal Manufacturing). The QCM setup consists of a static Teflon reaction cell, a lever oscillator, and a frequency counter (SR620, Stanford Research)
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connected to a computer for data recording using LabVIEW software. The crystal was clamped in the static cell with O-rings on both sides, resulting in only one face being immersed in the liquid with a geometric area of 0.205 cm2. The cell was placed inside a home-built temperaturecontrolled box equipped with Peltier cooling units that maintained temperature at 20 ( 0.5 °C. The box also served as a Faraday cage in order to minimize electrical noise. Frequency was recorded initially on the dry crystal under Ar atmosphere; deionized and Ar-purged water was then injected into the cell to a volume of 4.550 mL. Once the system had reached frequency stability to e1 Hz (approximately 34 h), the contents of the cell were stirred for 40 s and, immediately afterward, 50 μL of pNBD stock solution was injected.36 The above method was adopted in order to ensure mixing and minimize temperature and viscosity changes introduced by solution injections. Control tests carried out with only stirring or with 50 μL water injections showed that this procedure preserves the frequency stability of the QCM cell. The frequency was recorded continuously after injection in order to monitor the deposition rate. After reaction with pNBD, crystals were rinsed with copious amounts of ACN and dried in Ar before any subsequent characterization. Δf versus time curves were obtained by correcting the raw frequency data using the frequency baseline prior to injection and removing electrical noise spikes from the data (Igor Pro 6.04). XPS characterization was performed on an Omicron ultrahigh vacuum system at 1 1010 mbar base pressure, equipped with a monochromatized Al Kα source (1486.6 eV) and a multichannel array detector. Spectra were recorded with an analyzer resolution of 0.5 eV at 45° take-off angle. Atomic area ratios were determined by fitting to Voigt functions after background correction using commercial software (Igor Pro 6.04). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was performed on a potentiostat (CHI660C) using a three-electrode setup with Pt wire and Ag/AgCl (IJ Cambria) as counter and reference electrodes, respectively. CV was carried out on the QCM static cell, with the Au-coated crystal as the working electrode. Argon purged solutions of supporting electrolyte containing 0.1 M NaClO4 in 1:9 EtOH/H2O were used for all electrochemical experiments. Infrared-reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) was performed on a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (Bruker Tensor 27) using a mercurycadmium-telluride (MCT) detector and a VeeMaxII variable angle specular reflectance accessory with wire grid polarizer. Spectra were collected using p-polarized light at 80° incidence from the surface normal; 256 scans at 4 cm1 resolution were collected for both sample and background.
3. RESULTS 3.1. Nanogravimetric Monitoring of pNBD Adsorption. Nanogravimetric experiments using QCM rely on the calculated mass change at a quartz crystal by measuring the frequency change as expressed by the Sauerbrey equation:37
2f0 2 Δf ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi Δm A μF
ð1Þ
where f0 is the resonance frequency of the fundamental mode of the QCM in air, A is the effective surface area of the electrodes, and μ and F are the density and shear modulus, respectively, of quartz. This equation is valid for crystal oscillations in air and for mass changes arising from rigidly coupled masses. When crystal oscillations occur in liquids, as in the case of our measurements, it is necessary to account for additional contributions to the resonant frequency:38,39 Δf ¼ Δfm þ Δfy þ Δfa þ Δfx 13030
ð2Þ
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Langmuir
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Figure 2. (a) Surface coverage as a function of time up to 10 min for 5 μM (trace A), 10 μM (trace B), 50 μM (trace C), and 100 μM (trace D) pNBD concentrations.
Scheme 2. Possible Mechanisms of Covalent Grafting for pNBD (M)
Figure 1. (a) Time evolution of QCM resonant frequency after injection of pNBD aqueous solutions to a total concentration of 5 μM (trace A), 10 μM (trace B), 100 μM (trace C), and 500 μM (trace D). (b) Surface coverage curves as a function of time obtained from curves in (a) using the Sauerbrey equation.
where Δfm is due to the adsorbed mass, Δfy is due to viscous damping, Δfa is due to surface stress, and Δfx arises from nonshear coupling. The frequency change due to viscous damping is negligible in our case due to the extremely low concentrations used and the small amount of liquid injected into the reaction cell (1% of the total volume). Viscous damping arising from deposition of an organic layer has been shown to be negligible in the case of alkylthiol self-assembled monolayers on gold.38,39 We can assume that viscous damping is also negligible in the case of pNBD layers, since these have been shown to typically grow to approximately 2 nm thickness under similar conditions.17,18,20 Finally, Δfa and Δfx contributions, although they may vary between experimental runs, are typically found to be time independent during adsorption processes from solution.38,39 Therefore, frequency changes of the QCM crystal can be satisfactorily approximated with eq 1, under the experimental conditions used for our studies. The resonant frequency of the QCM prior to injection of pNBD into the cell is considered as the baseline in determining the frequency shifts and thereby the mass shifts for all of our experiments. Figure 1a shows the frequency change as a function of time obtained using four different pNBD concentrations of 5 μM (trace A), 10 μM (trace B), 100 μM (trace C), and 500 μM (trace D). Control tests carried out by injecting water instead of pNBD stock solution showed that the observed decrease in frequency can only be attributed to pNBD surface adsorption. Considering the area of the QCM crystal exposed to solution and a theoretical maximum coverage for pNBD40 of 12 1010 mol/cm2, it is possible to apply eq 1 in order to convert the frequency curves in Figure 1a to surface coverage (θ) curves for pNBD.
Figure 1b shows surface coverage as a function of time obtained for 5 μM (trace A), 10 μM (trace B), 100 μM (trace C), and 500 μM (trace D) pNBD concentrations. At the highest concentration, the deposition curve suggests that the deposited mass rapidly increases to values higher than those expected for a pNBD monolayer and appears to saturate within 60 min to the equivalent of three pNBD layers. This result is in agreement with previously reported thickness measurements of spontaneously grafted layers on gold, that indicate that pNBD films grow up to 23 layers when pNBD bulk concentrations are >0.001 M.17,20 For the lowest concentrations (e100 μM), it is possible to identify two regimes in the deposition curves: at early times, there is a rapid increase in coverage followed by a slower deposition rate at longer times. At early times (
