12 The Effect of Serendipity and Specialization on Invention J O H N J. D ' A M I C O Monsanto Agricultural Products Company, Research Department, 800 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, M O 63166
You are trying to find a way to make the world beat a path to your door, but nothing seems to work. Then you discover that one of the worthless mousetraps you have built actually is the best potato masher ever devised. This is serendipity, the happy faculty of stumbling across something valuable accidentally. Serendipity has always played a major part in the development of new and useful things - like floating soap, a nonstick coating for cookware, better brakes for jetliners, the vulcanization process for rubber, a widely used artificial sweetener and a rat poison that harms no other creature. Many giant firms, however, don't like to talk about luck's role in their research and development efforts. After a l l , how does it look for a researcher to stumble blindly onto a better gadget after he and a host of other highly trained and well-paid scientists have expended months of work and a pile of money on a major, organized effort - without success? A spokesman for one big midwestern consumer products firm says he is eager to t e l l about a new device developed accidentally, but then a vice president squelches him. Bad for the corporate image, he is told. Other firms are more outspoken. "We spend a great deal of time planning our work, and I think this is very important," says a vice president for research and development at General Electric Co. "But you can't really plan many research discoveries. Frequently unexpected things happen that are the most valuable and useful results of the research." Into The Frying Pan And sometimes things happen that have nothing to do with the line of research. In 1938, for example, chemist Roy Plunkett was trying to make an improved refrigerant for Du Pont Co. He filled several cylinders with various mixtures of gases and stored them in dry ice. One morning he found that the gases in one cylinder had formed a white waxy solid that didn't dissolve in conventional solvents or react to extreme temperatures. Thus the discovery 0-8412-0561-2/80/47-129-143$5.00/0 © 1980 American Chemical Society
144
INNOVATION AND U.S. RESEARCH: PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
of Teflon*. A few months before Mr. P l u n k e t t stumbled on T e f l o n * , a graduate student i n chemistry named Michael Sveda was p u f f i n g on a c i g a r e t i n a l a b a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , where he was p u t t e r i n g w i t h v a r i o u s compounds i n a search t o f i n d a f e v e r reducing drug. O r d i n a r i l y a p i p e smoker, he absentmindedly chewed h i s way through h i s c i g a r e t , l e a v i n g b i t s o f tobacco on h i s l i p s and tongue. He brushed them o f f w i t h a f i n g e r - and suddenly n o t i c e d an overpowering sweet t a s t e . "I knew r i g h t away t h a t I had something important," Mr. Sveda r e c a l l s . He t a s t e d e v e r y t h i n g on h i s l a b bench (some o f the compounds were q u i t e t o x i c , he l a t e r r e a l i z e d ) to f i n d the substance t h a t had put the sweet t a s t e on h i s f i n g e r s . That was the b i r t h o f sodium cyclamate. A Scouring Pad Makes Good A new technology, f i b e r m e t a l l u r g y , owes a great d e a l t o the f r u s t r a t i o n o f Appy J u r a s . In 1935, Mr. Juras was a t e c h n i c a l salesman f o r a p l a s t i c s company t h a t was t r y i n g t o l i c k a c e r t a i n problem. The f i r m wanted t o use a tough new epoxy r e s i n p l a s t i c f o r such shapes as auto dashboards, but the p l a s t i c mix d i d n ' t harden evenly when c a s t . At a workshop i n h i s D e t r o i t home, Mr. Juras was t r y i n g t o f i n d a way t o conduct heat q u i c k l y out o f the p l a s t i c mix so i t would c o o l evenly. He wasn't g e t t i n g anywhere. F i n a l l y , i n a what-the-hell mood, he chucked a s t e e l wool s c o u r i n g pad i n t o the syrupy mass. Within a few hours, Mr. Juras r e a l i z e d he had the answer: the s t e e l wool had adsorbed the heat q u i c k l y and conducted i t out o f the mix, a l l o w i n g the p l a s t i c t o harden evenly. And the s t e e l f i b e r s imbedded throughout i t imparted an e x t r a toughness to the substance. Mr. Juras followed up on h i s d i s c o v e r y . He soon found ways to t a i l o r metal f i b e r s so t h a t when they were combined w i t h other substances, s t r o n g e r , better-wearing products c o u l d be made. In 1965, he formed h i s own f i r m t o produce the f i b e r s , and he worked with auto makers and o t h e r firms on s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s . He helped Bendix Corp. develop a j e t a i r l i n e r brake w i t h a l i n i n g c o n t a i n i n g metal f i b e r s : i t gave b i g m i l i t a r y and commerc i a l j e t s 400 safe stops i n s t e a d o f 40 t o a s e t o f brake l i n i n g s . He a l s o developed a c l o t h used on some autos. Many i n v e n t i o n s e x i s t o n l y because o f f l u f f s i n the l a b o r on the p r o d u c t i o n l i n e . In 1839, C h a r l e s Goodyear a c c i d e n t a l l y dropped a glob o f rubber and sulphur on a stove, running an experiment aimed a t t r y i n g t o make rubber more v e r s a t i l e . But the rubber cooked i n t o a substance t h a t wasn't b r i t t l e a t low tempe r a t u r e s and d i n ' t s o f t e n a t h i g h e r temperatures, the main drawbacks a t the time t o the wider use o f rubber. Goodyear named the a c c i d e n t a l process v u l c a n i z a t i o n , and a huge new i n d u s t r y was *Trademark o f E. I . DuPont
12.
DAMICO
Effect of Serendipity and Specialization
145
launched. In 1926, physician-turned-chemist, Joseph C. P a t r i c k , was t r y i n g t o make a cheaper a n t i f r e e z e f o r autos. He d i d n ' t make i t , but one s t i c k y , smelly mess he produced hardened i n t o one o f the f i r s t u s e f u l v a r i e t i e s o f s y n t h e t i c rubber. A businessman t a l k e d Dr. P a t r i c k i n t o e x p l o i t i n g the d i s c o v e r y , and T h i o k o l Chemical Corp. was formed as a r e s u l t . It Floats! Ivory* soap was a mistake, too. The f i r s t batch made i n 1898 when a P r o c t e r & Gamble Co. workman went t o lunch without remembering t o t u r n o f f a b l e n d i n g machine. The r e s u l t i n g batch o f soap had t i n y a i r bubbles beaten i n t o i t : when i t reached the market, the e n t h u s i a s t i c requests f o r "more o f t h a t f l o a t i n g soap" conv i n c e d P&G t o keep making i t . Dynamite, p u f f e d wheat and p u f f e d r i c e c e r e a l s , and LSD are t r a c e a b l e t o mistakes. S e r e n d i p i t y doesn't always b r i n g fame and fortune t o the i n ventor. Charles Goodyear, who f a i l e d t o patent h i s v u l c a n i z a t i o n process, d i e d $200,000 i n debt. A l s o , Lady Luck does l i t t l e f o r those who don't recognize a break when they see one. As Louis Pasteur put i t : "In the f i e l d s o f o b s e r v a t i o n , chance favors only minds t h a t are prepared." Consider p h y s i c i s t John T y n d a l l , who i n 1895 i d l y but acc u r a t e l y noted the a n t i b a c t e r i a l a c t i o n o f a c e r t a i n b l u i s h - g r e e n mold. Almost 50 years l a t e r , S c o t t i s h b a c t e r i o l o g i s t Alexander Fleming made p r e c i s e l y the same observation when he l e f t a b a c t e r i a c u l t u r e uncovered and found i t contaminated by the same mold. The d i f f e r e n c e was t h a t Mr. Fleming knew he had d i s c o v e r e d somet h i n g important and f o l l o w e d through. The r e s u l t : Penicillin. Some firms take s p e c i a l pains to i n s u r e t h a t the f r u i t s o f s e r e n d i p i t y aren't overlooked. Monsanto Co., f o r example, sends every compound i t develops t o a l l i t s v a r i o u s s p e c i a l i s t d i v i s i o n s , on the o f f chance i t may have a use i t s developers haven't thought of. Sometimes i t does: the company's A g r i c u l t u r a l Chemicals D i v i s i o n , f o r example, found Vegadex®, a h e r b i c i d e f o r vegetable crops, upon examination o f a rubber-processing chemical. My d i s c o v e r y o f Vegadex® can be p a r t l y a t t r i b u t e d to serend i p i t y . At t h i s p o i n t i t should be mentioned t h a t Vegadex® i s a preemergent h e r b i c i d e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g weeds i n e d i b l e crops, such as c e l e r y , l e t t u c e , asparagus, e t c . Once we had Vegadex®, we were able t o p a r l a y luck i n t o a c a r e f u l l y designed research program. With the a i d o f P. C. Hamm, a c o r r e l a t i o n o f h e r b i c i d a l a c t i v i t y versus s t r u c t u r e f u r n i s h e d us a model f o r the f u t u r e s y n t h e s i s o f •Trademark o f P r o c t e r & Gamble Trademark o f Monsanto
146
INNOVATION AND U.S. RESEARCH: PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
s i m i l a r chemicals. T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n o f h e r b i c i d a l a c t i v i t y versus s t r u c t u r e coupled with the replacement o f sulphur with an oxygen atom, hydrogen with a c h l o r i n e atom, and diethylamino with d i i s o propylamino moiety o f the Vegadex® molecule, l e d t o the d i s c o v e r y o f Avadex®, a preemergent w i l d o a t e r a d i c a n t . The f u r t h e r r e placement o f another hydrogen atom with a c h l o r i n e atom l e d t o the d i s c o v e r y o f Avadex BW®. Both Avadex® and Avadex BW® are presentl y being used as a preemergent h e r b i c i d e i n crops such as normal o a t s , b a r l e y , wheat, sugar beets and f l a x . The use o f e i t h e r Avadex® or Avadex BW® a t a r a t e o f 1-1/2 l b s p e r acre, completely e r a d i c a t e s f i e l d s contaminated with w i l d oats and without being t o x i c t o such crops as b a r l e y , wheat, oats, sugar beets and f l a x . In c o n c l u s i o n , granted t h a t Lady Luck played a p a r t i n the d i s c o v e r y o f Vegadex , the d i s c o v e r y o f Avadex and Avadex BW® was a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f a w e l l organized s y n t h e s i s program coupled with an e x c e l l e n t team e f f o r t between the chemist, the agronomist, management, and the patent attorney. No one denies t h a t the k i n d o f luck t h a t b r i n g s such things to l i g h t w i l l continue t o p l a y a b i g p a r t i n the s t o r y o f invent i o n . But there are those who b e l i e v e that i n the corporate sphere a t l e a s t , s e r e n d i p i t o u s i n v e n t i o n w i l l become somewhat r a r e r as the complexity and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f technology increases. One who t h i n k s so i s Robert J . B o u t h i l e t , P r e s i d e n t o f F o s t e r D. S n e l l , Inc. He sees a growing " g e n e r a l i s t gap" that leaves companies exposed t o the danger o f missing many a s e r e n d i p i t o u s opportunity. "There are fewer g e n e r a l i s t s who can t r a n s l a t e observations i n one f i e l d i n t o another," he says. "We have too many s p e c i a l i s t s , too many p r e c i s i o n i s t s . T h e i r t o o l , the computer, i s too l o g i c a l t o make the c a s u a l observations necessary t o s e r e n d i p i t y . " Mr. B o u t h i l e t recommends t h a t i n d u s t r y scramble up t o i t s s c i e n t i s t s a b i t more, a l l o w i n g them more time t o work outside narrow s p e c i a l t i e s and apply t h e i r know-how t o d i f f e r e n t problems. In c l o s i n g , I have never invented anything, f o r God i s the c r e a t o r and i n v e n t o r o f a l l t h i n g s . He i s the beginning and the end. F i n a l l y , I want t o thank God f o r supplying me with many f r u i t f u l ideas. RECEIVED November 13, 1979.
Trademark o f Monsanto
