The Literature of Cacao W . TRESPER CLARKE Rockwood & Co., Brooklyn 5, Ν. Y.
Cacao has been known to the scientific world for only about 450 years, but in that time it has become firmly established in our economic, historic, cultural, romantic, and scientific lives. Agronomists from various parts of the world have occupied themselves principally in the tropical areas of production. Economists have dealt with cacao and its effects upon social, political, and national cultures. Historians have recorded its transition from the pre-Columbian world of the Middle American cultures to the Spanish conquerors, and those who followed.
The thread of the history of cacao, completely unknown to and unsuspected b y E u r o peans, has been spun by discoverers, voyagers, military conquerors, religious missionaries, merchant princes, and pirates with conflicting national ambitions. I n the past hundred years its industrial development has enlisted the assistance of food manufacturers, chem ists, nutritionists, biochemists, home economists, traveling salesmen and advertisers. In the various branches of the growing food industry the confectionery industry has been joined b y the baking, beverage, ice cream, and dairy groups. The pharmaceutical, t o bacco, and fertilizer subgroups have further swelled these forces. The poet, musician, artist, etymologist, physician, student of folklore and jurisprudence, and the common man, both rich and poor, have expanded the literature to its present relatively enormous size. The very diversity of these sources has made it appear to the casual investigator that the literature of cacao has been neglected. Y e t the fine spinning of related and unrelated threads of cacao endeavor and their weaving and interweaving have produced a wonder fully sturdy fabric.
Prehistory The prehistory is probably the least well-known phase of cacao. Archeologist and botanist indicate that many of the plants found on the middle American scene give highly acceptable evidence of the antiquity of cacao. Carter (19) is convincing i n his statement that the cultural development found i n Central and South America required a long de velopmental period. The evidence of plant domestication gives an entirely new perspec tive to the antiquity of that area and, b y extension, to other surrounding areas. Yucatan, Guatemala, and the Amazon-Orinoco basins seem to be the most likely original sources of cacao. How many millenniums the natives may have cultivated cacao before the arrival of Columbus may never be known. " L i t e r a r y references" i n the form of stelae or hieroglyphs may yet be awaiting the archeologist's pick and shovel. Morley hints this i n his monu mental studies of the Mayas (S3). The origin of cultivated plants is a particular phase of botany which, requires specialists who can work equally well i n archeology, ethnology, history, native languages, cultures, and religions. This highly specialized field of study 286
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has to rely on the testimony of such workers as Lundell (49) and Bartlett (6), who are con vinced that the high correlation of cacao and other botanical species of food plants with the presence of M a y a ruins i n the Petén forests indicates that human agencies determined these associations many centuries ago. Cacao seems traditionally associated with re ligious worship and ritual among those people. I t therefore seems natural that the plazas and streets near their temples should be lined with venerable plants such as cacao, ramon, and mamey. E v e n i n clearing new fields for agriculture, these trees received selective protection and it is perhaps not too far off literary base to include this as u n written vital literary evidence. Dahlgren (25) briefly indicates the gradual extension of cacao northward. The Mayas, the Toltecs, and the Aztecs for many centuries had set the stage for the arrival of Columbus i n 1502 and Cortez i n 1519. Perhaps the earliest account is an entry i n the log of Columbus during his fourth voyage to the New World. I n J u l y 1502, off Yucatan, he intercepted a coastwise canoe loaded with products of agricultural commerce. Among them was cacao, one of the many unique vegetable legacies from the Americas (23). Cacao was on the scene when Cortez advanced into the Valley of Mexico i n 1519. His letters to the Spanish K i n g , Charles V , mention i t as one of the unusual gifts offered by the somewhat frightened emissaries from Montezuma I I (24). Later he found it popular at the Aztec Court and its use already widespread. I t did not grow i n the capital prov ince, but had to be imported "from the outlying reaches of the empire. This commerce of cacao was large and extensive. Montezuma ordered the establishment of a special cacao plantation for Charles, but other immediate gifts and loot proved more attractive to the conquerors. However, cacao grew into popularity with the Spaniards and their adoption of the word "cacauatl" as used b y the natives for this food and the plant reached us through contacts with the Aztec and M a y a people. The history of its technology and description are suggested i n the etymology of the two principal words b y which cacao products were designated. According to D a v i l a Garibi (26), the word cacao is older than the word chocolate. Cacao is derived from the hybrid Maya-Aztec form consisting of two root words which signify a bitter beverage. Judging from the trustworthy recipes used by these early Mexicans, such a beverage made today would probably be just as unappealing to us as i t was to the conquistadores. I t was not until sugar, spices, and milk were added and the beverage was cooked and served warm that its popularity among Europeans became established. Today's food tech nology, and i n fact all lexicography, whatever the language, is indebted to the phonetic M a y a adjective " C h o q u i " signifying warmth as the source of the first two syllables i n the word chocolate. Spanish orthography of the next 100 years brought about the simplifica tion of these terms to their present-day Spanish and English. Rarely have words from such obscure aboriginal languages been so gratefully and universally adopted into a l l tongues of the world. Clarke has given more widespread publicity to these derivations («).
However fascinating is the history of cacao, its acceptance i n our current practical lives scarcely gives due credit to the exalted status i t enjoyed i n the ancient Central American cultures. Social custom and traditions passed over into and shaped its accep tance i n our European culture, and i n many countries i t still constitutes an expensive luxury. Poetry and music, as esthetic forms of literature, have not neglected cacao and chocolate as themes. However, commercial exploitation and technological advances i n agriculture and the manufacturing and processing arts and sciences constitute the major portion of our literature on this subject today.
Histories of Cacao Few books on cacao have been written which do not provide the reader with one or more copies of woodcuts taken from the early classics. Perhaps the most outstanding popular historical work is "Quatre Siècles d'Histoire du Cacao et du Chocolat" by Bourgaux (10). The technological developments from aboriginal to World W a r I I days are marked, and Bourgaux gives the reader copies of many of the original etchings taken from de
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Blegny (1687) (8), Bontekoe (1679) (9), Thomas Gage (1648) (32), Benzoni (1565) (7), William Hughes (1672) (37), and many others. Another equally well illustrated history is by Historicus 1892 (36), with reprints from early works of the seventeenth century. The work of Historicus was sponsored by the great English firm of Cadbury and, aside from being filled with valuable excerpts from many early works, seems to be the first to introduce to cacao literature colored reprints of the Mexican picture writings relating to the subject. Unfortunately, this work as well as most of the early references are out of print and available only i n a few large libraries and private collections. Three publications by Walter Baker & Co. i n 1886 (4), 1890 (3), and 1904 (5) provide substantial excerpts from Gage (1648) (32), Brookes (1724) (14), M a n g i n (1860) (SO), and Colmenero de Ledesma (1631) (48). These three books constitute one of the most i m portant single groups of cacao history i n English. Whymper, whose writings are accepted as classics on the subject, includes a chapter on the history and growth of the cacao industry (1921) (75). Quotations from Prescott (1843) (62), Peter M a r t y r (1526) (61), and DeCandolle (1883) (18), and popular accounts that are current i n sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth century news journals, and references to Humboldt's travels (1799) (38) and to the famous scholar and physician Henry Stubbe (1662) (67) make interesting reading which invites a study of the original sources. Cultural aspects of cacao are supplied by Valerian Tornius (1931) (68), who describes briefly the method of preparing cacao as a food, its use as currency i n old Mexico, and the gradual evolution of recipes for use i n the modern world. One of the special attractions is a group of photographs of the ancient equipment used i n preparing cacao for food uses and a series of picture writings given i n early Mexican codices. The references to choco late and cocoa i n poetry, painting, and music are unusually complete. The bibliography includes references to still more fascinating history, such as the diatribe by Cardinal Brancaccio against the widespread use of chocolate in 1665 (11), de Cailus' natural history of cacao (1719) (17), and Brillat-Savarin's chocolate recipes to tease the palate (1826) (12). The German chocolate expert, Heinrich Fincke (1936) condenses his references to cacao history into four short pages (30), quoting most of the previously mentioned authorities. M a n y interesting small works shed light on the early history of cacao. F o r example, the legend of cacao given by Denis (27, 50) recounts a few of the rather apocryphal stories of cacao in the early history of Mexico. These oft-told tales reach us from Torquemada (1614) (69) Sahagun (1560) (64), and the remarable grand folio on the antiquities of Mexico by L o r d Kingsborough (1830) (44)- F r o m the latter work come many of the earliest representations of hieroglyphics showing cacao trees, pods, its processes of prepara tion as a food, the god of cacao, various scenes of cacao agriculture, and consumption as a beverage. In still another small important work Garcia-Icazbalceta (1896) (33) gives the story of cacao i n the history of Mexico. f
Negative Evidence There are no Biblical references to cacao. Romans and Greeks celebrated their festivals without the foaming bowl of chocolate. The Egyptians and Hindus lay no claim to its use. Although so many other literary references go back to the ancient Chinese pharmacopoeia, that source fails to bridge the gap with either m y t h or fact i n the case of cacao. Medieval literature is deadly silent. Omar K h a y y a m , Roger Bacon, Dante, Marco Polo, Petrarch, Chaucer, and all other pre-1500 A.D. poets, scientists, and travelers who sang and wrote of the pleasures of their day would never have missed the opportunity to write of cacao and chocolate. E v e n Shakespeare seems to have been born too soon. The inference of these negative data shows that cacao was unknown to the world i n that day. N o one knew what new worlds lay i n wait for Columbus, da Gama, Torres, and Magellan. The story of the circumstances of cacao as it has now developed would have seemed another Munchausen tale.
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Classifications and Bibliographies The state of cacao literature is rather chaotic, in that it is dispersed i n piecemeal fashion throughout European and American scientific and trade journals. The subject has become so formidable that no one has accepted the challenge of preparing a definitive, all-inclusive text since Fincke did so magnificant a job i n the German language i n 1936 (30). Only since the end of World War I I does there seem to have been a general realization of this disorder. Several classifications of subject matter have been prepared, the most thoroughly detailed system of documentation being that proposed by Mikulaschek to the Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat i n 1949 (51). Based on the Dewey decimal system, it covers confectionery and other allied products as well. It has not yet been accepted by the industry, which seeks something simpler. , Its classification index numerals frequently run to twelve and fourteen integers. Further study, possibly with the Fédération Internationale de Documentation at the Hague, may improve it. It is at present available i n French and German. Two notable bibliographies have become available since the end of World War I I . The Watrous bibliography (1950) (72) on the cacao plant, its culture, and the primary proc essing of cacao holds special interest to the worker i n agricultural research and extension. Listing approximately 1400 separate items published chiefly between 1920 and 1949, it embraces the cultural aspects of distribution throughout the world, the propagation, types of soil, fertilizers, yields, taxonomy, and physiology of the cacao plant, fungus and virus diseases, and insect and other pests. It also covers the harvesting, curing, grading, storage, and biochemistry of the cacao bean and various research programs undertaken in different parts of the tropical world. A convenient feature of this bibliography is its use of the classification call numbers used in the Department of Agriculture Library. The second bibliography is that of Mueller (54). Somewhat more general than the Watrous, it covers the history, cultivation, use, manufacture, and economic importance of cacao. It roughly divides the literature chronologically into 1500 to 1900 A.D. and 1900 to 1950, and presents an index by subject. Although the latter part numbers 2700 ref erences alone, certain notable omissions of recent literature will be corrected i n later editions. The student of early cacao history will find Mueller most helpful, even though many of the references are unavailable except in the rare book rooms of the world's fore most libraries. Earlier bibliographies have been absorbed and covered in the two just mentioned. Among these are those of Alfred Riiger (1925) (63), the serial bibliographies of tropical agriculture prepared by the International Institute of Agriculture (1932-1935) (Rome), (41), and van H a l l (1931) (34). Still smaller bibliographies covering specific subjects have proved most valuable to researchers i n more limited fields. Some excellent ex amples are to be seen i n the annotated bibliography on the phytophthora pod rot by N e w hall (1949) (56), to which Desrosiers has added some twenty other titles 1951 (28). The broad bibliography of manuscripts, printed materials, and maps make Erneholm's (1948) work on cacao production i n South America noteworthy (29). The appended bibliogra phies i n outstanding texts by Fincke (30), K n a p p (45, 46), Jensen (42), Jordan (43), Whymper (75), Bourgaux (10), and B y waters (15) are most helpful to those fortunate enough to have access to them. The excellent reports of Schwarz (66), on cacao production i n practically all the principal cacao-growing countries make excellent documentary material for the investiga tor. There are over two dozen available.
Scientific and Trade Journals Contributions to the scientific and technical literature are to be found in most of the internationally recognized journals, such as the publications of the chemical societies of the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Switzerland, and the L o w Countries. Notable contributions are also recorded from Sweden, Hungary, Czechoslo vakia, Italy, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, and Japan. I n the United States as i n Great
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Britain, trade journals provide many up-to-date practical papers, but not all of these journals are i n form to encourage permanency of literary recording. Articles on cacao, cocoa, and chocolate have appeared i n a l l publications of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
Trade journals such as Food Engineering, Manufacturing Confectioner, Confectioners J ournal, International Confectioner, Candy Industry, Confectionery and Ice Cream World, and Food Processing supply current literature of original papers b y contributors from the industry. Federal and state experiment station bulletins are relatively easy to obtain and are usually listed i n Chemical Abstracts and the "Bibliography of Agriculture" (70). European publications are Food Manufacture (London), Gordian (Hamburg), International Chocolate Review (Zurich), Zucker- und Sitswaren-Wirtschaft (Hamburg), Cacao, Chocolade en Suikerwerken (Bussum, Holland), Consudel (Amsterdam), Chocolaterie Confiserie de France (Paris), Confectionery Production (Surbiton, Surrey), Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires (Paris), and others. M a n y important articles appear i n one or more of the above publications, frequently i n English translations. Gordian and International Chocolate Review are multilingual, using German, English, French, Spanish, Italian, and Dutch. N o serious student of cacao science can afford to overlook these sources and he will find a knowledge of two or more of these languages a distinct asset. The standard encyclopedias contain authoritative works on the subject—e.g., Encyclo pedia Britannica has a concise section by K n a p p (4-7), Encyclopedia of Chemical Tech nology one b y Clarke (20), and "Chemistry and Technology of Foods and Food Products" one b y Schoen (65). Publications of the scientific societies are the repositories of many valuable con tributions. The more important ones are those of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY (Journal of the American Chemical Society, Analytical Chemistry, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry), Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry (London), Proceedings of the Institute of Food Technologists, Chimie et Industrie (Paris), Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und-Forschung (Germany), Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (2), The Analyst (London), American Association of Candy Technologists (United States), Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, Cereal Chemistry (United States), and others. Two major index sources are Chemical Abstracts and "Bibliography of Agriculture," both of which list contributions on a world-wide scale. The "Bibliography of Agricul ture" (70) lists cacao under miscellaneous economic plants and chocolate and cocoa prod ucts under beverages and condiments. Specific articles on plant diseases of cacao must* be sought under diseases, viruses, or other headings. T h e chocolate paper m a y be i n dexed under a specific heading, such as history, market statistics, economics, or fats and oils. The reader is advised to exhaust the sections headed miscellaneous before presuming he has checked everything likely to lead him to a work on cacao.
Organizations and Institutes in Industry Certain national, international, and state trade associations and institutes have encouraged and supported conferences and congresses i n various parts of this country and the world. A t these conferences important reports on scientific programs and research are given, which usually become available in records and transactions. Although most of these papers are circulated freely, some have been limited to members and associate or ganizations i n other countries. I n recent years many of these restrictions have been re moved and the findings are now freely shared with mutual advantage. Among those i n this category are: 1. 2. 3. ington 4. 5. 6. 7.
American Association of Candy Technologists ( A A C T ) , New York American Cocoa Research Institute ( A C R I ) , Washington Association of Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacturers of the U S A ( A C C M ) , Wash British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association ( B F M I R A ) , London Cocoa, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance ( C C C A ) , London Forschungs-Institut fur Kakaowirtschaft ( F I K ) , Hamburg Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture ( I C T A ) , Trinidad
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Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences (IAIAS), Turrialba, Costa Rica National Confectioners' Association ( N C A ) , Chicago Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat (OICC), Brussels Pennsylvania Manufacturing Confectioners' Association ( P M C A ) , Philadelphia West African Cacao Research Institute ( W A C R I ) , Tafo, Gold Coast
The American Association of Candy Technologists, does not publish a journal but circulates reprints of scientific articles by its members as they appear i n print i n the trade journals. T h e National Confectioners' Association has no scientific journal, but circu lates to its members copies of reports on research work (55) done under its auspices at the Southern Regional Research Laboratory, U . S. Department of Agriculture, and at the Georgia Experimental Station. The most outstanding contributions to American chocolate and confectionery literature have grown out of the annual conferences (60) sponsored b y the Pennsylvania Manufacturing Confectioners' Association held at Lehigh University since 1947. These papers (61) have been published i n single yearly volumes and later published i n the trade journals. M a n y of them have been translated into German and French and published i n European trade journals. M u c h of this literature is of the practical type, disclosing tech nical improvements and application of immediate value to industry as distinguished from the basic research. Although both are necessary, the chocolate and confectionery i n dustries have generally been slow to apply more than rule of thumb science and engineer ing. Another source of important and valuable papers has been the annual conferences held in London since 1945 by the Cocoa, Chocolate, and Confectionery Alliance, which has concentrated its endeavors on investigations of the agricultural problems of cacao, its ex tension to new areas of the world, the pests, diseases, and hazards to which cacao seems an easy victim, the specific problems of cacao viruses and their hosts, rehabilitation of devastated areas, improvement i n cacao quality b y dissemination of new methods of fer mentation, drying and grading of the commercial supply of raw cacao, research on the soil, and investigation of insecticides, trace minerals, sunlight, rainfall, and fertilizers (22). One of the oldest cocoa and chocolate associations is the Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat, which is the successor to the Office International des Fabricants de Chocolat et de Cacao, originally founded i n Belgium, 1930. Prior to 1940 i t published bulletins (57), but then i t ceased all activities until about 1947, when it was reactivated. I n place of its bulletins there now appears its monthly Circulaire Périodique (58), which is re stricted to members or to chocolate and cocoa manufacturers affiliated with a member association. Its principal contents consist of association news, business statistics, and abstracts. The office has sponsored important scientific congresses which have been pro ductive of much good, with its major efforts directed to investigating manufacturing processes, analytical methods, industrial statistics, utilization of cacao by-products, quality controls, literary indexes., and international cooperation between the countries of cacao production and those i n which it is consumed (59). I n the Americas the Association of Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacturers sponsors the American Cocoa Research Institute and contributes sizable support to the Inter-American Cacao Research Center founded i n 1947 at the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Turrialba, Costa R i c a . The special attention at Turrialba has been directed to intensive training of competent personnel to further the study of specific cacao problems, which differ i n the various Pan-American countries. The information from Turrialba is covered i n Cacao (16) (formerly Cacao Information Bulletin) which appears i n two editions, English and Spanish. I t reports the transactions of the inter-American conferences such as those held i n Turrialba (1947-49), St. Augustine, Trinidad (1940), and Guayaquil, E q u a dor (1952). The center maintains a highly specialized library and copying service for the benefit of the cacao world at large, and serves as a repository for available technical i n formation. Among the subjects covered i n Cacao are current articles on specific fungus, virus and deficiency diseases of cacao i n the Americas; insects and fungicides; attempts at i m munization of cacao against these hazards; use of machines for cultivation i n plantations; extension of cacao into such plantations where scientific controls may be adopted and de-
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veloped still further; pruning, grafting, budding, rooting, pollenization, and breeding; study of many old and new varieties to determine disease resistance, flavor, and yields; encouragement of student projects and arrangement of seminars; cacao curing; produc tion economics; standardizing the units of measure for cacao; special studies of the cacao problems i n individual countries of the Pan-American Union, i n the South Pacific, and other parts of the cacao-growing world; and exploration for new types of cacao. Needless to say, the work of these organizations is of the utmost importance to the cacao-consuming world, for during World War I I considerable advantage was gained by the enemies of cacao. National economies of many cacao-growing countries were ad versely affected. Disruption of the normal life of the consuming countries by war, the sinking of millions of tons of cacao en route to the Allies, the control of prices, and the allocation of the world's diminished supplies all created artificial surpluses i n distant countries of growth and serious shortages i n the warring nations of consumption. These factors also affected the index of literary activity, and it is but natural that w i t h the end of the active fighting and return to more normal national order, cacao literature should follow i n the wake of a revival of scientific study. Since 1921 the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture has been known for its out standing basic researches i n cacao agriculture (39). It continues i n this important role, and coordinated with the West African Cacao Research Institute (73) it serves the entire British cacao-growing areas and indeed the world. It has developed and put into actual practice many of the procedures for propagating large quantities of cacao plants. I n vestigations into the toxicity of soils, effect of shade and light, diagnoses of mineral de ficiency by leaf injection, and a basic study of the nutrients required for normal and i m proved growth are among the researches conducted by its soil chemists and physiologists. The publications of the British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Associa tion (13) have until recently been restricted to members of the association. I n keeping with the general trend to share the information for the common good of the industry, an excellent technical paper on the cacao tannins by Hallas (35) has been released. Papers for the Forschungs-Institut fur Kakaowirtschaft appear i n Gordian and other German food journals.
Patent and Food Law Literature Some of the most interesting sources of cacao literature are the patent offices of the world. It relates largely to manufacturing technology and primary and secondary products. Patents are often a rich source of information, which lead others to still more ingenious adaptation. However, it is important not to confuse pseudoscientific claims, such as are to be found i n some processing patents, with genuine cacao science. The patent literature cannot always be depended on. Sometimes the specifications leading up to the claims of a patent may be indistinguishable from science'fiction, which can be entertaining or instructive or provoke a "flash of genius" i n the reader. However, the trained tech nologist can be greatly stimulated by keeping abreast of the patent science, by consulting the Official Gazette of the U. S. Patent Office (71), Chemical Abstracts, or Food Engineering. N o r should the legal literature be ignored. The Food, D r u g and Cosmetic A c t of 1938 (31) provides findings of fact, largely based on the technology as of 1940, upon which were established the definitions and standards of identity of chocolate, sweet chocolate, and milk chocolate, three types of cocoa based on range of fat content and products with or without the addition of specified alkali ingredients. The chemist, manufacturer, con sumer, and various enforcement agencies in municipal, state, and federal government divisions find it a remarkable part of the scientific, jurisprudential literature which spells out i n almost unmistakable prose the precise status of cacao processing and the products of this food technology. In its fundamental concepts this Food and D r u g A c t and the regulations and standards promulgated thereunder are outstanding i n their thoroughness and understanding of the basic principles of chocolate and cocoa manufacture. It is pro tective i n effect, i n that it establishes the conditions and technical boundaries within which those who work at these products may range.
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This is not a dead literature. I t is subject to revision when the boundaries are changed and as technology shows the need. Interestingly enough, the act itself outlines the legal procedures for the modifications which will keep i t very much alive and up to date. Although there have been no changes i n the cacao products standards since they were first announced, i t is a tribute that they were drawn up so meticulously as to have stood nearly 12 years without alteration. However, today cacao technology has begun to feel the need for revisions which are i n the interest of the consumer and i n pace with an active postwar industry; hence the reader must anticipate changes and know where to look for them when they come. Chemists have built up a substantial branch of analytical science which is part of the official literature of the Federal Security Agency. Research conducted by government chemists, often with assistance of collaborators i n industry, provides the currently ac cepted official methods which enjoy legal recognition i n enforcement of the Food and D r u g Act. E v e r y five years the volume of "Methods of Analysis" of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists is revised and reissued (1). The progress of these changes may be followed i n the quarterly issues of the Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (2).
Statistical Information on Cacao Cacao of commerce is shipped i n hemp, jute, or sisal fiber bags. I n this form i t is often referred to as cocoa or cocoa beans. Statistics on production and consumption are compiled by several recognized authorities. Prior to World W a r I I the statistical records prepared b y Gordian were issued from Hamburg. The New Y o r k Cocoa Exchange and the Cocoa Association of London release compilations of world cocoa movements. The International Chocolate Review (Zurich) circulates reliable figures. A t annual conferences in London the Cocoa, Chocolate, and Conf.ectionery Alliance (22) prepared excellent resumes of supplies, demands, trends, prices, and distribution. These timely data serve a world which in 3 years (1948 to 1951) produced an average of about 760,000 long tons, approximately 3 8 % of which was absorbed by the United States. The Instituto de Cacau in Bahia, Brazil, issues monthly statistics from the world's second largest producing country (40). Whitmore (74) and Montgomery and Taylor (52) present a complete report of cacao production and world trade, reviewing the causes for fluctuations, discussing the cacao diseases common to various parts of the world and their effects on the statistical figures, and giving prices and sketches of developments i n most of the countries of the world. A more specific study of the historical and economic growth of Central and South American production is that of Erneholm (29). This major work is valuable for the student of economics seeking a source book of details of climate, rainfall, geological facts, extent of diseases, and early colonial history of cacao i n Latin America. T h e extensive bibliography of source materials, manuscripts, maps, and references is noteworthy. T h e U . S. D e partment of Foreign and Domestic Commerce and the Pan-American Union compile and release figures of occasional surveys. B o t h have offices in Washington. Official data are available from some embassy and consular offices i n Washington or from the local departments of agriculture in the capitals of the various countries.
General Remarks and Conclusion F r o m the point of view of cacao-growing and agriculture, the literature is more voluminous than for the food-manufacturing phases, which are more correctly classified as cocoa and chocolate processes. This may seem odd, as one might expect a greater tech nical literature from an industry which is so greatly dependent upon machines and the technicalities of food processing. The reason is not too clear, but it may be that barriers involving competitive secrecy have played a part. Relatively few people have been at work i n manufacturing, as compared to a multitude of people i n agricultural pursuits. Whatever the causes, it is relatively more difficult to avail oneself of the literature on
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chocolate and cocoa processing. However, in the past 20 years there has been a general improvement and the cocoa food technologist nowfindsa growing literature which will have to be classified and made more easily available. References mentioned as showing a way to bring some order to the literature (20, 30, 51) are based on considering the sequence of manufacturing processes—i.e., storage and cleaning, roasting, winnowing, grinding, pressing, and pulverizing to a powder, or making into sweet goods followed by conching, tempering, solidification, storage, and shelf fife. Other phases of these operations, such as alkalization, solvent extraction, detheobrominization, making of cocoa butter, refining, and utilization of by-products, constitute special side operations or elaborations of the main theme. Other phases would have to include the chemical and physical characteristics of cacao ingredients (fat as well as nonfat) or their components (tannins, glycerides, plant acids, etc.), the nutritional values of chocolate, and many other subjects of more immediate interest to the chemist than to the manufacturing operator. Wartime needs of the military forces pointed to the desirability of having this information available and in orderly arrangement. There is always a daily need by the younger technicians, who some day must operate the industry profitably. There is no central office where all cocoa and chocolate literature could befiledand disseminated, no agency which has taken upon itself the responsibility of sponsoring its collection and reproducing it in periodic form. The Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat comes closest to performing that task for the industry and would seem a likely place to start or expand on what has been begun. The American Cocoa Research Institute is another possible starting place, and the job is big enough to have several parallel international projects under way.
Literature Cited (1) Assoc. Offic. Agr. Chemists, "Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists," 7th ed., 1950. (2) Assoc. Offic. Agr. Chemists, J. Assoc. Offic. Agr. Chemists, quarterly publication (Vol. 35, 1952). (3) Baker, Walter, and Co., Dorchester, Mass., "Chocolate-Plant and Its Products," 40 pages, Cambridge, Mass., University Press, 1890. (4) Baker, Walter, and Co., Dorchester, Mass., "Cocoa and Chocolate," Jas. M. Bugbee (?), 166 pages, Boston, Rockwell & Churchill, 1886. (5) Baker, Walter, and Co., Dorchester, Mass., "Cocoa and Chocolate," 80 pages, Boston, Barta Press, 1904. (6) Bartlett, H. N., "Botany of the Maya Area," Carnegie Institution of Washington, Misc. Papers 1, 17 (1935). (7) Benzoni, Girolamo, "La Historia del Mondo Nuovo," 175 pages, Venice, 1565. (8) Blegny, Nicholas De, "Le Bon Usage du Thé, du Caffe, et du Chocolat," 358 pages, illustrations, Paris, 1687. (9) Bontekoe, Cornelius, "Traktaat von het excellentste kruydt Thee, Coffi, Chocolade," s'Gravenhage, 1674. (10) Bourgaux, Albert, "Quatre Siècles d'Histoire du Cacao et du Chocolat," 230 pages, 78 illustrations, Brussels, E. Guyot, 1935. (11) Brancaccio, F. M. Cardinal, "De Chocolatis potu diatribe," Rome, 1665. (12) Brillat-Savarin, Α., "Physiologie du Gout," 4th ed., Chap. X, Paris, 1828. (13) British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association, Leatherhead, Surrey, England, irregular reports, bulletins. (14) Brookes, R., "The Natural History of Chocolate," 95 pages, London, 1724. (15) Bywaters, H. W., "Modern Methods in Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacture," Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son, Co., 1930. (16) Cacao Research Center, IAIAS, Turrialba, Costa Rica, Cacao (formerly Cacao Information Bulletin), English and Spanish editions. (17) Cailus, De, "Histoire Naturelle du Cacao," 227 pages, Paris, 1719. (18) Candolle, Alphonse de, "Origine des Plantes Cultivées," Paris, 1883. (19) Carter, G. F., "Plant Geography and Cultural History in the American Southwest," Viking Fund Publication in Anthropology No. 5, New York, 1945. (20) Clarke, W. T., "Chocolate and Cocoa," Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Kirk and Othmer), Vol. III, pp. 889-918, New York, Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., 1949. (21) Clarke, W. T., "Sidelights in the History of Cacao and Chocolate," Intern. Chocolate Rev., 8, 179 (1953) in English; Gordian, 52, No. 1258, 53, No. 1259 (1953) in German. (22) Cocoa, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance, Inc., 11 Green St., London, W.1; Cocoa Conferences, Reports for 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1953. Cocoa Conference of 1945 London, Colonial Office, H.M. Stationery Office, 1945.
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(23) Columbus, Ferdinand, "Historia del Almirante de las Indias, Don Christobal Colón," Madrid, 1892, 2 vols. (24) Cortés, Hernando, "The Letters of Cortés," tr. by Francis A. MacNutt, New York and London, 1908, 2 vols. (25) Dahlgren, Β. E., "Cacao," Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Dept. Botany Leaflet 4 (1923). (26) Davila Garibi, J. I., "Nuevo y mas amplio estudio etimológico del vocablo chocolate y de otros que con el se relacionan, con un apendice, 42 pages. Mexico City, Tip. E. Pardos e Hijos, 1939. (27) Denis, Ferdinand, in Arthur Mangin's "Le Cacao et le Chocolat," pp. 301-28, Paris, Guillaumin & Cie, 1860. (28) Desrosiers, D., "Annotated Bibliography of Phytophthora Pod Rot of Cacao," Scientific Communications Service, Cacao Research Center, IAIAS, Turrialba, Costa Rica. (29) Erneholm, Ivar, "Cacao Production of South America," 86 references, maps, citations, 280 pages, Göteborg, C. R. Holmquists Boktryckeri A. B., 1948. (30) Fincke, Heinrich, "Handbuch der Kakaoerzeugnisse," Berlin, Julius Springer, 1936. (31) Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (U.S. Food Law), Federal Register, 9, 14329-37 (1944), Cacao Products Definitions, Standards of Identity. (32) Gage, Thomas, "A New Survey of the West Indies," London, 1648. (33) Garcia-Icazbalceta, Joaquin, "El Cacao en la Historia del Mexico," "Obras," Vol. 1, pp. 323-31, 1896. (34) Hall, C. J. J. van, "Cacao," 2nd ed., London, Macmillan Co., 1932. (35) Hallas, C. Α., "The Anthocyanin and Tannin Content of Cocoa," BFMIRA Research Rept. 13 (May 1949). (36) Historicus (pseudonym), "Cocoa. All About It," 100 pages, illustrations, London, Sampson Law, Marston and Co., Ltd., 1896. (37) Hughes, William, "The American Physitian," pp. 102-59, London, 1672. (38) Humboldt, F. H. A. von, "Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent," Paris, 1819. (39) Imperial College of Agriculture, St. Augustine, Trinidad, B.W.I., reports and periodical bulle tins; Tropical Agriculture, monthly publication. (40) Instituto de Cacau, Bahia do São Salvador, monthly statistical letters and reports. (41) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Rome, "Bibliography of Tropical Agriculture" (1931, Vol. 1), ceased in 1936. (42) Jensen, H. R., "Chemistry, Flavoring and Manufacture of Chocolate, Confectionery and Cocoa," Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Sons, 1931. (43) Jordan, Stroud, assisted by Κ. E. Langwell, "Chocolate Evaluation," New York, Applied Sugar Laboratories, Inc., 1934. (44) Kingsborough, Lord, "Antiquities of Mexico," Vols. I and III, Great Folio, London, 1830-48. (45) Knapp, A. W., "Cacao Fermentation," London, J. Bale, Sons & Curnow, 1937. (46) Knapp, A. W., "Cocoa and Chocolate, Their History from Plantation to Consumer," London, Chapman & Hall, 1920. (47) Knapp, A. W., in Encyclopedia Britannica, 1949 ed., "Chocolate." (48) Ledesma, Colmenero de, "A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Choclate," tr. by J. Wadsworth, London, 1640. (49) Lundell, C. L., "The Agriculture of the Maya," Southwest Rev., 19, 65-77 (1933). (50) Mangin, Arthur, "Le Cacao et le Chocolat," contains "La Légende du Cacahuatl," by F. Denis, Paris, Guillaumin et Cie, 1860. (51) Mikulaschek, W., "Decimal Classification of Cacao, Chocolate and Confectionery," Intern. Chocolate Rev., 4, 190-1, 350-62 (1949); 5, 125 (1950) in English; 5, 1-14, 125 (1950) in German. (52) Montgomery, E. G., and Taylor, A. M., "World Trade in Cocoa," U. S. Dept. Commerce, Industrial Series, 71 (1947). (53) Morley, S. G., "The Ancient Maya," Berkeley, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1946. (54) Mueller, Wolf, "Bibliographie des Kakao, seiner Geschichte, Kultur, Verwendung, Vararbeitung, Wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung," Hamburg, Verlag Gordian-Max Rieck, 1951. (55) National Confectioners' Association, Chicago, Reports on Research, quarterly. (56) Newhall, A. G., "Annotated Bibliography of Some of the More Important Papers on the Phytophthora Pod Rot of Cacao, 1922-1948," Cacao Research Center, Turrialba, 1948. (57) Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat, Bull. offic., 1 (1931), ceased 1939. (58) Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat, Circulaire Périodique, monthly bulletins, numbered without volume classification. (59) Office International du Cacao et du Chocolat, Congrès International, Lausanne 1950, "Volume Preparatoire," 1950; "Compte Rendu Officiel," 1950. (60) Pennsylvania Manufacturing Confectioners' Association, Philadelphia, Pa., Proceedings, First to Sixth Production Conferences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., 1947 to 1952. (61) Peter Martyr, "De Nuovo Orbe," or "History of the West Indies," tr. by R. Eden, London, 1612 (see 5th Decade Division). (62) Prescott, W. H., "History of the Conquest of Mexico," Boston, 1843; Modern Library, New York, Random House, Inc., pp. 11, 28, 79, 84, 90, 101, 108, 323, 330, 331. (63) Rüger, Alfred, "Kakao- und Schokoladen Literatur Verzeichnis," p. 48, Dresden, A. Dressel, 1925.
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(64) Sahagun, Bernardino, "Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España," Book III, Chap. 3; VIII, Chap. 13; IX, Chap. 18, 26; XI, Chap. 6-7, Madrid, 1829. (65) Schoen, Martin, "Chocolate and Cocoa," in "Chemistry and Technology of Foods and Food Products," Morris B. Jacobs, editor, Vol. I, pp. 810-39; Vol. II, pp. 563-90, New York, 1945. (66) Schwarz, L. J., many reports on cocoa growing in practically all important areas of the world. (67) Stubbe, Henry, "Chocolata, The Indian's Nectar," 184 pages, London, 1662. (68) Tornius, Valerian, "Das Buchüberdie Schokolade," 80 pages, Leipzig, 1931 (29 references). (69) Torquemada, Juan de, "Los Viente y Uno Libros Rituales," Book 4, Chap. 57, Book 14, Chap. 10, 14, 42, Madrid, 1614. (70) U. S. Dept. Agr., Library, Bibliography of Agriculture, Monthly Publication. (71) U. S. Patent Office, Patent Gazette (published weekly), and patents individually. (72) Watrous, R. C., "Cacao, A Bibliography on the Plant and Its Culture and Primary Processing of the Bean," U. S. Dept. Agr., Library List, 53 (October 1950). (73) West African Cacao Research, Tafo, Gold Coast, Institute Reports, annual and quarterly. (74) Whitmore, H. B., "World Cacao-Bean Production and Trade," U. S. Dept. Agr., Foreign Agr. Rept. 29 (August 1948). (75) Whymper, Robert, "Cocoa and Chocolate, Their Chemistry and Manufacture," 1st ed., 1912, 2nd ed. 1921, London, J. & A. Churchill. RECEIVED October 14, 1952. Presented before the Divisions of Chemical Literature and Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Symposium on Literature Resources of the Food Industries, at the 122nd Meeting of the
AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, Atlantic City, N. J.
