FEATURE
Jerome L. KIaff National Commission on Materials Policy, Washington, D.C. 20036
National materials policy FIGURE 1
Role of minerals in the U.S. economy
us.
1
NATURAL
RESOURCES: rocks minerals crude oil coal gas water air solar and
geothermal energy
Domestic mineral raw materials
J
f
I
3
I
'Energy aid processed material of mineral
Reclaiming and recvcline
' Domestic reclaimed ' 1
metals and mineral materials
Foreign operations of U S firms and/or foreign
J
FOREIGN NATURAL
- ------. ---
Domestie production Recycled m a t e r i a l tmports Exports
1
a
*
e-
Source: U.S Department of the Interior (Estimated values for 1972)
the U S . of energy and procesred materials of mineral origin
I
U.S. scrap and waste materials
I
.
US. exriorts of mineral raw materials, energy, and processed materials of mineral origin
I
.
I
I
I
"With growing population, expanding industrialization, limited resources, and world competition for materials, we can no longer afford the luxury of waste to the extent that we have in the past, particularly because waste contributes to the degradation of the environment. "From a philosophical viewpoint, how do we attack this problem? It all boils down to materials management. Basically, we should be conservationists, placing heavy emphasis on recovery of materials from solid waste and recycling materials. If we do that effectively, we will automatically achieve environmental goals to a large extent, and reduce the strain imposed by our requirements of materials from primary sources." -Jerome L. Klaff
iecessary to conserve U S resources The final report of the National Commission on Materials Policy delivered to the President and the Congress in late June was prepared to comply with the requirements of the National Materials Policy Act of 1970. I t is significant that the Commission's letter of transmittal specifies that a national materials policy must of necessity embrace the entire resources scene-materials, energy, and the natural environment; and that the title selected for the final report is "Material Needs and the Environment, Today and Tomorrow." When the Commission started its work in late 1971, it was obvious that the materials problems of the U.S. were complex and broad based. Accordingly the goals, stated in simplest terms, included these objectives: 0 adequate materials and energy for national security and a healthy economy 0 conservation of materials and preservation of the environment 0 a resources and materials base that would stimulate a finer quality of life for everyone. Materials defined
The National Materials Policy Act of 1970 defines "materials" as "natural resources intended to be utilized by industry for the production of goods with the exclusion of food." Certain derived materials such as plastics, synthetics, ceramics, and paper also came within the purview of the Commission as alternate or indispensable materials. and also because they are derived from essential natural resourcest. The role of mineral materials in the U.S. economy is illustrated in Figure 1 in which dollar values of domestic mineral raw materia imports, exports, and processed and recycled materials are drawn to scale to emphasize true relationship to the L . S . Gross National Product which totaled about $1.6 trillion in 1972. Basic mineral materials, including metals. nonmetallics, and fuels constitute only about 3'1~7 of the Gross National Product. As these materials are processed. their value is multiplied nearly five-fold
by inputs of labor, capital, productivity, and enterprise. During 1972 the U.S. required about 4.4 billion tons of nonmetallic materials, mineral fuels, metals, and nonfood organic materials. This is equivalent to about 42,500 Ib per person. The size of the rectangles within the square (Figure 2) indicate the proportionate weight of each type of material required per capita. On a weight basis, nonmetallic materials and mineral fuels predominate. To plan a materials policy program, the values of materials as shown in Figure 2 should be considered also. The total value of new basic mineral and nonfood organic materials required by the U.S. during 1972 was approximately $50 billion. This is equivalent to about $237 per person. The sizes of the rectangles within the square (Figure 3) are proportional to the value of each type of material required. When requirements are considered on a value basis, note how important the mineral fuels column becomes, also that although the weight of metals required is relatively small, the per capita value of metals required is nearly one quarter of the total value of all materials required. Table 1 summarizes the noteworthy fact that the U.S. uses about 4.4 billion tons of new basic materials annually, and discards an equivalent amount according to best estimates available. There is no direct relationship between these two figures because much of the material discarded is different in character from that now being used. Hundreds of materials are listed in the studies which were compiled for the Commission's deliberations, and numerous facets of the national and international materials system were reviewed to formulate a materials policy. The scope of these subjects is indicated by the major topics of the final report which include: the role of materials in American life: the materials system-supply, use. recovery, and disposition of waste; energy materials: environmental factors; land use; water; international consideration; science and technology: organizing for government action; and inventories of materials. Volume 7 , Number 1 0 . October 1973
913
Effect of materials on the environment More than 120 sources of information are listed in the final report including: 67 panelists on materials, environment, recycling, economics, and international problems; six national trade associations; eight university forums across the U.S.; seven materials conferences; 17 cooperating government agencies; 16 special reports to the Commission prepared by consultants and other contractors; and three major interim reports published by the Commission. All of this work culminated in the 189 policy recommendations presented in the final report. In view of the broad coverage of the report, this article is confined to subjects of specific interest to readers in the field of environmental science and technology. Nine factors were considered as essential in the study of environmental effects of a closed materials system: 0 materials-metals, nonmetallic minerals, energy materials, forest and agricultural products, polymers, and ceramics 0 stage of the materials cycle-exploration, extraction (harvest), transport, processing, use, recyciing, and ultimate disposal form of environmental disturbance-undesirable discharges, disturbance of surface or underground configuration, adverse or unplanned disposition of materials, reduction of environmental productivity 0 medium affected-atmosphere, soil, rivers and lakes, oceans, surface of the earth, subsurface 0 geographic source of agent-latitude and longitude of point source: region of diffuse source 0 geographic character of the environment effectmigratory or in situ; within the transport medium, the sink, or both; local, regional. national, transnational, or global 0 character of effects on human and animal welfaredirect insults or indirect impairment to life and health; di:IGURE 3
:IGURE 2
Weight of new basic raw materials used per capita in the U.S. in 1972 (Pounds) Nonmetallic materials
Value of new basic raw materials used per capita in the U.S. in 1972 (Dollars)
Mineral fuels Metals Organics Natural rubber l10l-i
Nonmetallic materials All other $1.57 Sa, 11,66
Metals
Mineral fuels
Non4ood organic materials
M e r metals
Natural gas $18.97
$7.69
I
1 Natural fi ers
~
Coal $17.07
and oils
C m r r S8.M
5 00
Cement $6.55
40 30 20 -
-- I8 g
- -_ = a
Smd and gravel (so00)
Petroleum 178001
lot
'6
5wO 10,000 15,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 Total 20i50 material --17180&[-b required per capita (42,500 lb)-T
Source: U.S Department of the lnterioi
91 4
$12.40
g z-
50
Environmental Science & Technology
";:
l i
I
il i Total $122.00
-1
I
L +
i l & n & t
$55.95
Per capita total for all materials $236.75
Source: U S Department of the Interior
I
Total ~
I
100
Rubber 3.9 million Textiles 5.7 miiiion Glass 12.8 million---Copper, lead, zinc 5.8 m i l l i o h , Aluminum 4.0 million-.
90 -
80
-
L
I
Paper iron and steel 105.9 million
50 40
t
39.4%
i-
ifll
200
Millions of short tons Recycied as percent of consumption Total consumption of selected materials. 1967: 191.22 million tons Total percent of consumption recycled: 48.1 million tons or 25.2% Source: US. Environmental Protection Aeencv
rect damage to crops and property; sociocultural change, esthetic, and related aspects of life; direct and indirect consequences of changes in structure and functions of ecosystems 0 degree of magnitude or severity 0 temporal factors-rate of change; continuity, sequence; frequency, rate of recovery; degree of irreversibility. In its overview of the environmental problems associated with the materials system. the Commission set forth several objectives. The first goal is to strike a balance between the "need to produce goods" and the "need to protect the environment" by modifying the materials system so that all resources, including environmental, are paid for by users. Secondly, the Commission strove for an equilibrium between the supply of materials and the demand for their use by increasing primary materials production and by conserving materials through accelerated waste recycling and greater efficiency-of-use of materials. Finally, a materials policy could manage more effectively by reorganizing the complex interrelationships of the materials-energy-environment system so that laws, executive orders, and administrative practices reinforce policy and not counteract it. To achieve the balance between the "need to produce" and the "need to protect." the Commission recommended that environmental costs be taken into account in the computation of costs and benefits of any action to extract, transport, process. use. or dispose of any material, and that such principles become a basic element of legislation and administrative practice. Except where social benefits are paramount, the Commission felt that extraction or harvesting of materials should be limited to areas where the ecosystem can be rehabilitated or enhanced. Also, the Federal Government should support extensive research and development on the dynamics of materials-energy-environment interplay and its effect on human, animal, and plant life. Studies should emphasize the detection of substances in low levels of concentration, their life cycles, and their chronic, additive. or delayed effects on public health.
Recycling and conservation of materials Throughout the report, the commission has placed great emphasis on recycling and recovery of materials from waste to conserve materials and minimize the impact of materials discard on the environment. During 1967, the consumption of major materials in the U.S. was about 191.2 million tons (Figure 4 ) . Of this total amount, about 48 million tons were recycled-or about 25%. Federal agencies and industry are developing programs and methods to increase the percentage of recycled material, to conserve materials, and to diminish degradation of the environment. Industry normally recycles new scrap generated in manufacturing and other processes. However, recycling of old scrap presents the greatest opportunity for additional conservation of materials. In 1971, 4.4 billion tons of waste were generated in the U.S. This total results from 230 million tons of municipal waste, 140 million tons of industrial waste, 1.7 billion tons of mineral waste, 1.74 billion tons of animal waste, and 640 million tons of crop waste. Precise figures are not available for the quantities of materials being discarded in collectable urban waste. However, there are reasonable estimates of the tonnages of aluminum, copper, and steel now contained in collectable urban waste and amounts that may be contained in collectable urban waste by the year 2000: 1970 2000 ( M i l l i o n s of short t o n s )
Aluminum
0.95
Copper
0.40
1.90 0.80
Old iron and steel scrap 13.00 26.00 These estimates represenf maximum recoverable content. According to consultants in this field, about half of the metals present can be recovered economically at present. Rating resource recovery among the highest national priorities, the Commission recommended that a national resource recovery system be established through public arid private sector cooperation to discourage dumping and encourage resource recovery as a means of turning waste into a national resource; encourage disposers to prepare waste for recovery rather than dumping; and create markets for recovered materials by recycling technology, by federal procurement policies. and by equitable tax and transportation rates for virgin and secondary materials. The Commission felt that the role of the Federal Government should include offering loans at low interest to private firms for recovery of resources from municipal waste, and offering subsidies for solid waste handling to municipal or county efforts to levy user charges that will enable the operations to pay all costs. Also, users (scrap consumers-e.g.. steel mills) of materials should be given economic incentives in the form of tax credits for expanded use of recycled materials. Tax credit could be for investments in new plants and equipment specifically geared to the production of marketable products from recycled materials, with five-year amortization deductions for companies that install ancillary equipment that will allow them to process larger quantities of scrap than at present. The Federal Government should take the necessary steps to correct the existing freight rate differentials between secondary and primary materials. Finally, reVolume 7, Number 10, October 1973
915
search and oevelopment and technology transfer on resource recovery snould be acce eraleo, espec'ally to encodrage recovery of resources in mJnicipal wastes. The Commiss on also nvest.ga1ed consewat on of mater a s ny Drevenlng wear. tear. corrosion, and otner forms of materials oss ana oeler oral on. and propose0 fLrther recommenaa1:ons Researcn ana oeve opmenl shoula oe sponsored on 'mprovements n resstance to corros on and other degradataon. n nondestrxt ve test ng meihoos: in Iechn(q,es of cnaracierization: n new composites: and on otner top cs re.at'ng IO mater als effect veness. Tn s RSD. sdpporled n tne past oy !he Department of Defense. h a t o n a l AerOnaJliCS and Space Aoministrat on, ana Alom c Energy Commission. ShoJlo also be pursLeo oy other agenc es w tn mater a15 respons b:I. lies, ana snoula ne comp ementeo by efforts to translate know edge nto pract ce. High priority lor energy malerials Energy malerials are tne focal point of naiional aitenlion today. ana effect ve snorl- and long-range PO icies have to ne snapeo 10 assdre adequate supp ies of energy ana fLels. Recogniz ng th s "rgency, the Comm'ss'on ha0 many recommendations to carry this goa IhroLgn. Beyond efforts Io overcome the currenl energy shortage. the h'ghest energy PO icy pr ority sno, d oe accoroed lo a research and oeveopment e f f o r l to free tne U.S. from oependence -pori loss l-els for its pr mary energy neeos. A n gh pr or'ty shou o be g ven for developmen! of low-suit-r coa s and consir-ct on 01 transportat on lac Ilies to move !his coa to the M'oole West. or to where t wi.1 be needeo in a nat onal emergency, w th government assistance. unaer p ans form- aled by the Execut've #evel. Financ al incent ves SnOJla oe prov'oeo I necessary, 10 equ p. open. and modern'ze certa'n l o w - s u h r coa mines to serve planis wh'ch must conlinLe to Lse low-SLf J r fJels ncreasing y. Lrgeni attention SnoJld be given IO the appl ca!, i y . feasibil'iy. ana cos1 effeci veness of sLcn SO: remova. systems as can oe L I izeo w th present power P ants that cannot secure lne necessary s-pply 01 o w - % I J f 1-e and are iocateo in those areas where standaros for stack emssions nave to oe t ghteneo Also. Ine Commtss on aec oed mal short-term pol c'es COJld faci itale mprovernents to o o power plants IO satal ow isfy mooern emiss.on stanoaras ana whicn w energy systems. where n power shorlages are mosl 8ke y to OccJr. 10 secure temporar) relaxation of em ssion standards wh'ch mpose a ser O J S oss of capacly. Re. search an0 development pro.ects lor convers on 01 coal 10 0 ana gas co- d oe exped led aggress ve y so lnat they may be able to conlr oJte IO energy needs as soon as feasiole Tne 0 . sha e program C O L . ~ proceed witn m n ma- delays. and developmen! cou d oe -nderla
