Here's W h e r e Federal R & D Funds Go Millions o f Dollars
pass s o m e of t h e mistakes and wasteful m e t h o d s of the past; • YYc can c o n t i n u e research o n making war and instruments of war. Our organizations for creating, g u i d i n g . and planning these research programs n e e d renovating. Since W o r l d W a r II w e have lost position as a great leader in research. Industry and the A r m e d Services can re-establish modi operandi which w e r e so successful during the war and which h a v e been largely forgotten and replaced with perfunctory procedures. • W e can start a vigorous production research program. During World W a r 11, tlie G o v e r n m e n t spent s o m e f u n d s on p r o d u c t i o n research, and m a d e a lot of progress in a snort time. Since the war, there has not b e e n an organized eflort and o?.iy a small amount of unorganized effort. W e have been doped by the thought that w e h a v e been the greatest industrial nation of all time and that w e will c o n t i n u e to use the same c h a n c e m e t h o d s . We will soon b e c o m e a s e c o n d rate nation if w e d o not d e v e l o p production methods on a broad scale • G o v e r n m e n t research funds should be m a d e available to create, e x p a n d , and use fine technical libraries. Part of almost any well p l a n n e d research program is a search of past work. T h i s important part of t h e research function has l v \ o n thwarted b e c a u s e data from government research h a v e b e e n lost to posterity. If n e e d e d again, it must b e recreated at great cost, T h e r e is not one a d e q u a t e library in the U n i t e d States today, even considering the Library of Congress. Our present libraries are still in the a g e of b u g g y w h i p s in their use of organized technical effort. The problem is an easy o n e to attack, and w h e n it is solved, the miles of b o o k s standing on end will g i v e w a y to memory drums, and the w e e k s w e m u s t spend on a specific search will turn to minutes. T h e present status of g o v e r n m e n t research d o e s not offer a promising outlook for great and favorable i m p a c t o n industry. Four to five years a g o it
!>egan to be clear that there is a great tendency for government research to become a system, to become perfunctory rather than a great dynamic tool for growth. Many skilled scientists and engineers work on poorlv planned projects, and much of the vvoik. if Nut cessfully completed, will never be used. lVople who are responsible for billions of dollars *f government research have had little or no executive experience specifically suited to the work. There was great talk after the shock of Spot nik I that we should improve our research and accelerate our efforts, the actions were distorted and resulted onl\ in more funds for education. Even by the standards of this day and age, the amount of money which the Government spends on R&D programs is large. Such funds have a great influence on the distribution of scientific and engineering talent and on the direction in which this talent is focused. Furthermore, since the source is centralized, there is a tendency for this influence to be centralized. In the past, this influence lias not been as centralized as many critics would like* in their demands to eliminate duplication, reduce interservice rivalry, and create czars to unify programs. T h e fact that many agencies have been responsible for conducting research and development is very fortunate. It has given American science and technology a breadth of base that it would not have had with greater centralization of federal funds for research and development. Supports Costly Research A direct result of the size of the federal funds for research and development has been the support of research requiring costly equipment, large and varied manpower, and long continuing effort that would be impossible to finance otherwise. Among others: atomic energy, ultra large particle accelerators, exploration of the upper atmosphere, rockets, guided missiles, supersonic aircraft, and the control of polio. Since government R&D programs aie financed from the public treasury through agencies charged with the responsibilities for the health, welfare, economic, and military security of this nation as a whole, it's not surprising that government programs cultivate more intensely those fields promising immediate results of national importance rather than those with longer
R&D Spend ing —Government Lead S (Millions of dollars)
1920 1930 1940
1950
1953
1956
1958
1
(Est.)
1 1 1
Federal Governmerit
30
45
85
1,500
2,810
5,400
6,200
1
!
industry
SO 215
50C
1,250
2,370
3,400
3,600
I
1 1 1 1 1 I
Universities and Other Institutions
20
40
115
150
180
200
220
Total
100
300
700
2,900
5,360
9,000
10,020
term and less well definable gams. The climate created b\ such emphasis permeates our whole technology and is felt by scientists and engineers .alike. It even penetrates the universities. Looked at objectively, howevei. the basic research content of the government K M ) programs is high, if perhaps less than it should be. The National Science Foundation estimates federal obligations for fiscal 1958 for basic i csearch at $232.6 million. Even leaving a big margin for uncertainties in tfu definition of basic research, this is a large sum. At present rates, it would support the activities of some 8000 senior scientists or pa\ all of the" research expenses for sonic 10.000 original research papers. However, even in fields of basic research the efforts of "use orit nted thinking" by centralized authority controlling large funds are sometimes shattering. Irresponsible statements, betraying a complete ignorance of research by individuals controlling a large portion of the basic research funds shake the morale of many investigators, direct their mental activities into unfruitful channels, or induce them to seek a living in the apparently more secure area of applied science. Another characteristic of the R&D program is artificial restraint in the form of security classifications. The need to keep certain information secret, apart from those who must know, is well recognized. When such information was largely concerned with guns, tanks, and certain chemicals, its impact on the growth of knowledge was trivial; the advantage of keeping it from a potential enemy was a dominant con-
sideration. When, as is now the case, the results of research and development in large sectors on the frontiers of science and engineering are limited in their circulation because of securitv classification, problems arise which mav I.ave far reaching consequences for the growth of knowledge. One effect of securitv regulations is that they force an investigator to discuss his problems, progress, and resulK within a restricted circle. Discussion of research problems with a large number And variety of educated minds is essential to sound progress. It catalvzes new ideas by mutual inspiration, it purges misconceptions and errors through frank and informed criticism. In a laboratory with large, varied resources, the circle of discussion mav be big enough to supply adequate stimulation and criticism. However, where the circle is limited in size, mental outlook, and background, the beneficial results of discussion mav be lost and the probability that misinterpretations and errors will be perpetuated is greatly increased. Nothing has a worse effect on the growth of knowledge than perpetuation of errors. But this particular aspect of government R&D programs is no cause for special alarm. Other problems are more pressing, if all the elements in the svstem for keeping know ledge alive and fertile are to function smoothly and in balance. The chief impact of the programs on the growth of knowledge has been to accelerate advances into new and hitherto inaccessible fields of experience—to increase greatly the knowledge residing in the literature Repositories DEC.
2 9.
1958
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65
where knowledge lies latent nr even moribund have been piled high How can w e keep this store of knowledge available to minds in which it grower How can we reduce it to patterns that stimulate the mind, enable the m i n d to comprehend, retain, arid use the experience?
Key A g e n t :
I he Teacher
In promoting the comprehension of knowledge, the key agent has b e e n t h e teacher, especially the university professor His business has been to get into his own mind a large amount of knowledge in a given Held. lit* would rearrange it into consistent patterns that struck the student's imagination And stimulated the student s desire t o inquire further, to understand facts b y \eeiniz interrelationships, and to predict others—in short, to use his knowledge. Where recorded experience was inadequate, questions arose that could only he answered b \ direct appeal to nature; the teacher and his students then embarked on research. However, the chief business of the threat teacher was not research bi it rather keeping knowledge alive and fertile by kindling enthusiasm for learning in other minds. In this manner, knowledge in a given field was systemised, reduced to order. ,\:ic\ presented in comprehensive patterns leading t o formulation of the major theories of science. Our suppK of great teachers and expounders has not kepi u p with the growing mass of experience. Indeed. in this respect the government R&E) programs appear to have temporarily retarded the growth of knowledge. Funds supporting these programs have drawn many potential expounders away from teaching and digesting knowledge and into research projects and development activities. This unfortunate trend, which was laid a t the door of industry before 1940. is well recognized but usually expressed in terms of its effect on the supply of trained manpower for science and technology, rather than in terms of t h e vitalization of knowledge. Less than 100 years ago research played b u t a small part in university activities in this country. Johns H o p kins pioneered in recognizing that a c tive research is a vital part in the life of a true university, and h e started a movement which has been followed bv 66
C&EN
DEC.
2 9,
1958
most other universities with revolutionary effect. However, even good things max b e perverted. Now. inanv of our universities have become so research minded that the road to promotion on their hicuk.es is paved with reprints of journal articles. Government K&D programs, therefore, have merely aggravated a situation that already existed. Clearer recognition of the vital role of the teacher in promoting the growth of knowledge may correct this overcompensation. T h e research establishment operated b\ our colleges and universities collectively receives each year about 12 to 13' t of federal research and development funds. The National Science Foundation points out that government money is exerting a significant influence m\ higher education in f he United States, hut it is hard to prove* this with figures T h e only data from which some conclusions might be drawn is the output of our graduate schools (science doctorates) and the input of federal money. ( Government money marked for educational institutions proper goes almost completely to support research in the natural sciences; a negligible amount goes t o the social sciences, and practically none at all to the arts and humanities. Thus, if federal R&D dollars buy P h . D . degrees, the increase in these degrees between the peacetime period of 1936 to 1942 and the postwar 1950 t o 1936 should be greatest in the natural sciences and less in the others. However, natural science P h . D / s between the two periods increased 257''' to 27,243, while social science Ph.D.'s sained 299'> to 11,603. The arts and humanities lagged somewhat but not significantly. Part of the answer is not that federal funds were made available but that graduates VVCP in demand. In the postwar period many jobs became available for bachelors in science and engineering, while social science fields d e m a n d e d advanced degrees. T h e annual output of Ph.D.'s in natural science in the prewar period was growing steadily—6 to 7°r per year —without federal money. T h e growth rate continued at the same level in the postwar period despite a large input of federal money. Paradoxically, the most significant impact of federal money for supporting natural sciences has been to enable colleges and universities to continue developing the social sciences and the arts and humanities. And this, says Frederick
Hovde of Purdue, is a highly desirable outcome for the nation. But universities have not been able to meet competition with industry for the young men who will be needed as teachers during the next tlecade, when college enrollments will rise to unprecedented heights.
Frustrates Objectives Since 19-45, contract research organizations have grown to full if somewhat frenetic maturity; there's no question hut that government-sponsored research and development has done much to create and extend their capabilities and resources. As a result, research organizations have been better prepared to serve the needs of private industry. Government programs have enabled t h e m to broaden the scope of their efforts, develop more disciplines of activity, expand their staffs and e q u i p ment. With all this, however, the Governm e n t at times seems inclined to confuse and frustrate its own objectives. T h e principal means of doing this has been fiscal, but there are other means, too. Most prominent is the declining influence of science and scientists on national policy. Only during World War II did science obtain unlimited support and freedom. Xow it is clear that military needs influence science, reversing the former situation under the Office of Scientific Research and Development w h e n our scientific brainpower was mobilized for national survival and given the freedoms of judgment, selection, and. action. Since the war the influence of science and research has been dissipated and scattered through a tangle of governm e n t agencies, committees, commissions, and consultants. Many scientists find their personal and invited service to n o purpose; scientific opinion is overshadowed b y prejudice and channeled thinking;. Between scientists and Government there now spreads a labyrinth of bureaucracy, which, by default, leaves too much of viie power of research decision to civil or military officers, not to scientists. Until Congress expresses itself on the relationship between science and Government, our whole research structure, including contract research organizations, government laboratories, and universities, will operate under major handicaps.
^m?*
D\f:s
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54-.
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CALIFORNIA
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C &EN
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FUSED
RIM
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68
C&EN
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Assays a n d refines platinum-group metals.
•
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•
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•
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•
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•
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METALS & CONTROLS
CORPORATION
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2212 Forest Street, Attleboro, Mass.
FIELD OFFICES
DEC.
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N E W Y O R K • C H I C A G O • D E T R O I T • I N D I A N A P O L I S • M I L W A U K E E • PASADENSA
1958
with
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As to fiscal matters, there art.- many prive itself or the scientific community Provides Impetus procedures and provisions which are The statement cannot lie made too of new knowledge by insisting on an hopelessly unrealistic and which im artificial separation of basic and ap often that iio\ eminent K\ ever, the best in search in this country is not enjoying merely an arm of the Government in terests aiul desires of tin* sponsoring an a d e q u a t e level. Both Government stead of a private, independent opera agencies A\\C\ the research oi sanitations and industry could and should support tion. Then* is more than irony in t h e it at a much greater rate, but neither would he served if legislation permitted fact that private sources of working appropriations for longer than one year. has met its responsibility on anything capital in main instances must support like ;». proper scale. In its contracts Their renewal could he considered at government research due to the low the e n d of two or three years. This with private research institutions, two yield created by present practices of would assure continuity, or if appropri courses are open to the Government. audit a n d procurement agencies First, it should be more liberal in ations are not renewed, it would permit The Government has been far too o r d e r h reassignment or less painful re allowing the institution's investments inflexible in interpreting and determin in basic research as an overhead cost. lease of staff. ing cost elements. It adopts the atti Second, and this applies particularly Government's contribution to the tude that since the research organiza continuity of an organization's activity to nonprofit organizations, the Govern tion already exists. Government will is somewhat diluted when equipment ment could agree to a supplementary take only its pro rata share of contract labeled "property of l \ S. Govern charge on its contract projects to pro costs. T h e r e are certain essential a n d ment" must b e dismantled its contracts. Vet research institution be given title to Meanwhile the National Science without them the organization would equipment unless a clear and definite Foundation and the National Bureau of not b e there at all and it could not need exists for government control or Standards must be kept alive and alert. continue its service. A research or use. Thev must remain scientific, and to d o ganization must charge a fee to main T h e Government should now move- so should offer scientific careers, not tain itself and meet capital replacement. decisively toward policies that instead solely administrative careers, to career The 6 to 7'< fee for nonprofit corpora of "tolerating" basic research will en scientists. Such basic research would tions fails to provide for necessary ob courage and even demand it. It should help to counterbalance emphasis else ligations, and when disallowances are • not. by splitting contractual hairs, d e where on military needs. deducted from the lee income, the latter is reduced to the vanishing point. Many organizations must limit government contracts to about one half litis article has been prepared by the staff of C&EX in collaboration of their research volume. To exceed with the participants in a symposium on the subject. The symposium, this appreciably mav place the organ in which those men were the authors and C. C. Fttnuts. I'nivcrsittj of ization in jeoparch' of being managed Buffalo, was chairman* teas sponsored by the Division of Industrial and by government contracting officers and Engineering Chemistry at the Chicago ACS meeting. auditors. TIK final result, ntst completed and cfiecked by the collaborators, is a Capital is a serious problem. Dollars product of the work of the following: tied up in accounts receivable are not, R A Y M O N D Ε WELL, University of Buffalo because of fixed fee limitations, earn Historical Review of R&.D Programs of the Federal Government ing the return that should be expected on capital invested in production FREDERICK L HOVDE, Purdue University facilities. Organizations which borrowImpact of Government R&D Programs on American Universities to carry accounts receivable, or to re MAURICE NELLES, Crane Co. place other funds tied up in them, find Impact of Government R&D Programs on American Industry that government regulations do not J. E. H O B S O N , United Fruit Co. allow interest cost to be included in Impact of Government R&D Programs on Contract Research Organizations computing overhead. Interest must then b e deducted from fee income. R. E. GIBSON, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University To overcome this, monthly interest Impact of Government R&D Programs on the Growth of Knowledge charges should be allowed to the ex tent that the research organization has Credit for general assistance, coordination, and checking is d u e Ray government receivables outstanding at mond Ewell. University of Buffalo. month's end. DEC.
2 9,
1958
C&EN
69
