RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY FRANCIS J. CURTIS Monsanto Chemical Company, St. Louis, Missouri
INTRODUCTION
We have discussed the position of research in organizations, both of the centralized and decentralized types. The differences between these two types of organizations apply perhaps more largely to the over-all management of the company, rather than to the activities of an individual research laboratory, with mhich we are now to be concerned. Therefore I propose to describe the processes of research and development and their relation to production as carried out a t the Monsanto Chemical Company, which is organized along the decentralized road, as an example which is probably applicable to either type of organization. In our case the individual research laboratory is headed up by the research director who may have an associate director and several assistant directors. One of the important organization changes which we have made in research in recent years is the addition of an administrative assistant to the research director to take out of this officeall of .the burdensome details necessary in operating any organization, and to leave the research director free to think. This is our partial answer to Dr. Mees' criticism that we should make the youngest chemists directors and the older men workers. We haven't quite done that but we have tried to relieve the older man who has had the misfortune to become an executive, of some of the burdens of that high office. The research director is also in charge of pilot plants throughout the company. This is contrary to the practice in many companies which make pilot plant operation a separate entity, a manrelous chance for buck passing. However, you will find that in spite of our decentralized general organization, we have a great tendency toward integration within the units. As an instance of that the research departments in practically all of our divisions are actually operating small scale manufacture, a natural outgrowth of pilot plant operation. In this discussion I propose to treat research as a function rather than as a subject coming only under the research director. Therefore, some of the parts of the function will be carried out under the direction of others, but for my purpose will still be .classed as research. RESEARCH MIND VERSUS PRODUCTION MIND
Whether or not there is a definite research mind and a definite production mind is a moot question which
has given rise to many hours of pleasant and occasionally acrimonious discussion. As it is one of those questions which can never be definitely settled, it can be used forever. It is my personal feeling that even though these types of mind were not originally separate, they become so by experience and particularly in the best specimens of each. There are just enough good exceptions to this statement to make its surety insecure. Whoever said, "The more it changes the more it is the same," was probably speaking of a representative research mind. It is the business of research to change its mind, though sometimes one suspects that change is made for the sake of change. It has been interesting to me to note that this extreme flexibilit,~is conditioned to technical matters and not to managerial or other spheres. We find it very difficult for our research directors to accept new methods of research management, although they will feed avidly on a new technical reaction or method. In other xvords, the overdevelopment probably only applies to one side of living and I would suspect them all of being strong Republicans. The research mind has an impatience with the imperfect, which makes it feel that something can be done about it, a quality lacking in many quieter minds. There is an interest in knowing "why" as well as "what" goes on, probably created by the experience that knowing "why" enables greater skill in "what." The production man, on the other hand, is conditioned to "keep it going." Theeffectof constant study of costs on his thinking has made him realize the importance of that wonderful figure, the divisor, which sits a t the bottom of the cost sheet and, if large, covers up so many mistakes. He has his policemen, the control laboratories, who can give him a ticket if the quality is not up to standard. Hence he resists tinkering with the plant, though sometimes that is cheaper than building a pilot plant. The problem of management is to team these two together. You may visualize that we are dealing with two warring weatherfronts, shifting back and forth over the continent and distributing storms wherever they meet. If you will note the weather forecasts you will see many times a "static front" mhich designates no conflict. As a matter of fact, there is nothing wrong with a little conflict. The truth is probably between the two and if either one constantly prevailed we would have rather dull and constant weather, unconducive to the growth of anything.
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GENESIS OF IDEAS
you will reflect, to ask of any juggler, and more than do most can perfom. From time to time emphasis shifts. ~h~ great question we are often asked is, "mere you get your ideas from?" Who can prophesy? Just after the wax we were interested in developing and ~h~ open mind will pick an idea from anyone, anyplace, putting into operation processes for new products. a t any time, even from an executive. On the chemist At the moment there is a tendency to realize that many of our old processes need looking after and can stand or chemical,engineer lies the obligation of reading of the technical and patent literatures, which against the day of severe competition storeshis and sharpens his wits, H~ who spends presently to arrive. All of these factors weigh in his evenings at the bridge game, in the movies, or the deciding whether or not to go ahead in the development ~ of any ~ one particular b ~ idea: dthe nature ~ of the idea, the poo~room,is unlikely to be an ideamonger, ~ can put in time, but few contribute brains. In any cost, the difficulty of carrying out the work, the balance in the research program of the company a t the moment, chemical company a large fraction of the ideas from demands of customers, and we must be careful and the length of time likely before fruition. The remuch Program, therefore, is planned, as well never to get so ingrown that we despise the ideas of as research ever can be, as to subject, but it cannot be outsiders. This may sound like an unnecessary precaution, but it is surprising how easily megalomania planned as to time, nor h m l d any plan be adhered to creep in, ~h~ lrish did not invent usinn F ~ ~ merely ~ , J because it is a plan. Planning, yes, but without (ourselves alone). They only expressed the feeling of rigidity, is a desideratum in the operation of a successful research program. An unsuccessful piece of research a rather large fraction of the human race. oneof the mostsurprising discoveries is to find that work may easily lead to quite a new approach, unheard the more ideas one has the more one continues to have. of in the beginning. Every one of our group leaders is It has always surprised me, as it seems to contravene given a certain amount of free time and a budget for the second law of thermodynamics and shows that the working out of his own pet hunches, without apphysical laws are not as universal as they might be, proval or often without discussion even with the retime, looks ~ ~must be fed ~ with images ~ and builti with search ~ director.~ If his hunch, ~ after a short i ~ S U C C ~ S S ~ the U ~ project is given approval on its own and he hackgrounds, so that a man may expect as he getsolder %ghts to become more prolific in ideas rather than less, even goes ahead to use his free time for fancy. Like the battery of an automobile the imaginathough his legs may constantly diminish their output, the handling of ideas by the individual, judgment, tion must he exercised if it is going to have the strength turn Over the starter. that rara avis of the world, comes into vital prominence. The planning committee from time to time reviews M~~~ lack sorting qualities, and sooner or later cease the progress of the work being carried out, by means of to command a hearing, I am quite that an occasional good idea is lost by this means, but one reports and conferences. The best of planning will not search too long for a millimeter layer of coal eliminate dead horses, and cleverness in research management implies their quick recognition and decent two thousand feet under the ground. burial. SORTING OF IDEAS
Most research laboratories have a review or planning committee to sort out promising ideas coming to it from all sides. It is wise on such a planning committee to have representatives of top management, of research, of production, and of sales, so that all points of view may be represented in choosing from the shelf those ideas most likely to bring success. In the planning of any research program the conditions of the moment must be carefully obserued. We will have ideas connected with improving our present processes, even to the extent of entirely new processes for our present products. Others will deal with new materials to be made out of those we are a t present producing. Still others will go further afield and demarcate new areas to conquer. A great class consists of ideas for application or uses of products, which is the background of the extension of sales. At all times a study is being made of the proper balance of the program of these various classifications. The planning committee may be considered a juggler keeping five balls in the air a t once in proper relation to each other, which is a lot, if
THE NEW PRODUCT
A large part, and unfortunately the spectacular part, of research is concerned with new products. With the growth of our companies there has been a loss of the old intimacy between research and production. At one time they were united in the same man and even later the differentiation was small. Now each is too busy with his own concerns to take much time with those of the other. Sometimes it almost seems as though they haven't time to fight properly. Our problem is to stop this working in a vacuum, to break up the water-tight compartments, to realize that we are dealing with people and not things and shape our course accordingly. The clever plowman takes advantage of the natural curves of the land and by contour plowing prevents erosion. ' All men, research, design, and production, have certain skills which if utilized bring results most quickly. Our question is, "Can we make it with what we have and with what we know?" Therefore it is essential that we should bring in design and production early
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in the process and fit that process as much as possible to their skills and suggestions. The result of this is that everyone thinks it is his own process, which has a highly salutary effect on his promotion of it. The theoretical chemical engineers will have nothing to do with this, nor would Walker, Lewis, and McAdams countenance it for a second. To them there is the one best way. But they do not have to run plants, and we believe that what I have stated is the way to get results with the tools we have to work with. A new set of tools would merely have other characteristics, not more. Theoretically this procedure also tears down the organization charts which really demand that research finish their work, send the report to design, who in turn finish their job and send a report to production. This is a wonderful scheme for charts but poor for profits.
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is wise to let them get their questions out of their systems while the pilot plant is being designed, is in being and in operation, rather than have to re-erect it or start it up again later for the specific purpose of satisfying their curiosity. I can remember when 10 times pilot plant was considered a good safe rule. Now nobody worries a t 20 times 'nd we hear occasionally of 50 times or even more in some specific cases. We must remember that management cannot get its answers from a handbook. PLANT DESIGN AND ERECTION
By the end of pilot plant operations, design engineers and production men are fully informed on the process. Engineering takes over and makes a prospectus report to the general manager. In this report, which is really the first detailed over-all review of the project, they PILOT PLANTS cover the best process so far devised, set the tonnages as estimated by sales, and give detailed con~truct~on. After the laboratory comes the pilot plant-but and operation costs. In our case there is very often a does it? To pilot plant or not to pilot plant, that is the question of plant location to be decided, based on the question. In processes closely analogous to those now above data. The report ends with the complete cost operating it is questionable whether it is necessary to of production, possibly for several brackets of output, go to the expense and to consume the time necessary in a number of locations, together with the conclusions for building and operating a pilot plant. Where the and recommendations of the department, for action. operating plant to be used is available, and the process No report of any kind is ever made without the author's easy, it is very desirable to weigh the cost of a few recommendations for decision, as if he were in a position spoiled batches against that of building and operating to decide. You cannot build judgment without prac. a pilot plant and the delay in getting started. With tice. progress in chemical engineering, more and more can be After the prospectus report has been reviewed and calculated, but do not trust the slipstick boys too passed by the general manager, definite decision is greatly. Few of them have ever run a plant. If they made by him if the capital involved is $15,000 or less, had as much faith in God as they have in coefficients by the Executive Committee if between $15,000 and they would be saints. A secondary reason for a pilot $50,000, and beyond that with the recommendation of plant may even outweigh the primary, namely, the both, by the Board of Directors. necessity for providing small amounts of product for Now comes construction. Ordinarily we and many sales development. other com~aniesdo not maintain larre enough conThen we have the problem of the push from the non- struction forces to build our own large plants, so that technical executives, who think that no progress is being the engineering department is given r'esponsibility for made on a problem until it is in the pilot plant stage. construction and the actual work is carried out by outMr. John W. Livingston used to have a theory in side contractors. which he claimed that clever management found out all the information in the laboratory and then built the TRAINING pilot plant, made one run to prove it, and was finished. This, of course, is an ideal. It is something like a geoWith many new installations which approximate the metric limit, to be always approached and never same kind of manufacture carried on hitherto, and where achieved, but it isn't a bad goal to set ahead. Chemi- the production staff'sparticular skills are being used, no cal engineers do not like to work in the laboratory. very great amount of training is necessary. However, Hence they prefer to run experiments on the much more in the case of something radically new, we have a expensive scale of the pilot plant. In this they need a situation like the familiar time versus temperature curb, and the curb should start back with the chemical relationship. One can spend money on training and engineering departments of the universities, else we are have good operation from the start or one can give no going to find that the present demand for chemical training and put the time and money into poor operaengineers will turn into one for engineering chemists. tion. I t is obvious that judgment is required on the In the pilot plant is where it is particularly important balance between these two methods, but in our experito bring in the design engineers and production men ence poor production and poor quality run into money early. One of the characteristics of design engineers a t astronomical speeds, and the balance is strongly in is that they always want more information. They favor of the training period. Again the amount of have no saturation point in this regard. Therefore it training depends upon the newness and difficulty of
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the operation and the degree to which it departs from the ordinary skills of the production st&. I am going to run through for you the procedure we followed recently in a new and complicated synthesis. I might say that this is probably the most trainiig we have ever done in any one project and undoubtedly for simpler things some of the steps could be shortened or eliminated. The &st principle in our thinking on training is to deal with the supervisors, not the operaton. This might seem to be peculiar, but we have to remember that the supervisors are likely to be with you a t least for a considerable period of time, whereas the operators may be gone tomorrow and then the training will have to be done all over again. If the supervisor hasn't gone through the job himself, he is not going to be very capable of training others. Training also can be started long before the plant is finished so that plant and st& come to fruition a t the same moment. We first started with a lecture course on the chemistry o f the operation, with special chemists assigned to each step. In this course the variables were thoroughly discussed, pitfalls pointed out, and control points shown, and by means of laboratory data, it was demonstrated what can happen and how the process can be messed up, the fate of most new ones. The next step was to have the production supervisors in groups go into the laboratory and watch the chemist run through the whole process in glass, where they could see just how the materials looked and acted. Some batches were purposely mishandled to add to the process the fear of God. There followed a return to the classroom, where each supervisor was provided with a flow sheet and a skull-practice session held. In this the research engineer went through the process on the blackboard step by step and forced the supervisors to visualize it in their minds. With this picture they were taken to the pilot plant and runs were made there with production men observing. By now the plant was ready and each piece of plant equipment was run with water, first by the research and then by the production men, calibrating all tanks, pumps, and so forth, checking all controllers, thermometers, and gages, after which we were ready for the first plant batches. These first batches were run slowly rather than up to tempo. In musical terms, andante came before allegro. All these steps might not be necessary but this plant produced in the first batches 96per cent to 97 per cent of laboratory yield and astandard quality product. A long period, often of several months, of expensive plant operation, working out the "bugs," was largely eliminated, and we are convinced that training pays. I feel sure that we will see more of i t rather than less.
PLANTDEMONSTRATIONS Even on simpler jobs than that described above it is our common practice to have the research department demonstrate a process in the plant before it is agreed to
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and taken over by production. In this case research is responsible for the process but not for labor, materials, and so forth, while production actually runs the plant. If a demonstration shows that the operation is satisfactory, a standard process is written up and signed by both research and production. NEW OR IMPROVED PROCESSES FOR PRESENT PRODUCTS
New products are the glamor boys, but the present ones produce the bread and butter if not the kudos. Insurance research is vital for any company wishing to stay in business. Any process which has been running for ten years should certainly be looked at., I had an amusing experience once with the techmcal director of our English subsidiary. When I met him for the first time we proceeded immediately to talk out a11 of our various ideas and in the course of the conversation I made the remark that any process which had been running ten years should be changed. The English don't like change and he promptly blew up and pointed out that they had a pump which had been running a hundred years. My reaction was that he only confirmedme in my opinion. However as the net result I softened down the statement and got him to agree that perhaps they ought to be looked a t anyway. I firmly believe that this is soi and would almost like to see a schedule set up that management could review the processes periodically to make certain that thorough re-evaluation was being properly carried out. It is so easy to forget and the ordinary always seems right. It is even more important to keep in close touch with processes used by competitors and potentially radically new methods of making your own products. Some of the work done on the present products may be of a relatively minor nature, such as trouble-shooting, improving yields, increasing output. If you can increase yields and improve output in a given plant, it shows that your work wasn't well done in the first place, for which there may be excusable reasons. Often, however, a completely new tack must be taken and we have almost the case of a new product, and much that has been said in that category will apply. A new improvement must be demonstrated in the plant in exactly the same manner as the original process was. If this improvement came from research, then research is responsible for the chemistry of the process, but not the labor or materials, and if the improvement appears to be successful, both research and production sign a process amendment. If the improvement came from production, research may or may not do laboratory work on it. Production will demonstrate and research will sign the process amendment if it is satisfied with the demonstration. However, in this particular case production can change the process after demonstration, without the consent of research, since theirs is the prime responsibility. This doesn't happen too often because few men dislike comfortable alibis. What I have given
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is the general procedure, but many small troubleshooting jobs for production are not so formalized.
PLANT INVESTIGATION GROUPS
pilot plant, namely, provision for sales development, although war conditions accelerated the pace of change. It may be asked why keep such an operation in research, and one of the answers is that in the nature of the situation we have excessive variations, more suited to the research mind than that of production. One must be able to shift almost day by day, to transfer apparatus from one process to another, to improvise, to change one's mind. Furthermore, even our true pilot plant is also partly doing small scale manufacture in its normal operation, since we must keep the commercial development in pace with the rest of the research. If we waited until the plant was constructed before we started to do the commercial development, we would not construct the plant. The accouhting for small scale manufacture is kept entirely separate from research and is not reported as research expense. The products are charged into sales inventory a t cost and sales takes the loss or the credit. I don't know what cost-conscious research director worked out this scheme originally, but sales took a gamble and have won. Sometimes it doesn't pay to be too clever.
There has grown up in many of our plants, as in those of other companies, a group of chemical engineers responsible to production, who while not entirely so, still are largely concerned with what ought to be classified as research. In the old days production supervisors could do a little experimenting of their own, but this is no longer possible with all the multitudiious duties which have grown up, the handling of labor which absorbs a large fraction of their time, and the general increase in output and sales over the past ten years. The plant investigation group started out to do trouble shooting and small research jobs, smaller than those ordinarily sent to the research department. They are engaged in a critical study of the processes, determination of apparatus, and step efficiency. Is the design quota being met? There has been a tendency recently, particularly during the great push on construction which most of us have been going through, to have the ~ l a n investieation t erouus h e h out the desien eneiLeers, for which they are part&ularly capablebeca'se of their close contact with operation. Finally the plant CENTRAL RESEARCH LABORATORY investigation group makes an excellent training ground It may not be amiss to describe here the function of a for young chemical engineers coming out of school, if central research laboratory, which does not come under the group is large enough to stand some dilution. the direction of the general managers of divisions. It is quite natural that since each general manager is responSMALL SCALE MANUFACTURE sible for the expenditures and results of his division, the I have been talking of the interaction between the research laboratory under his control is likely to have its research groups and the production supervisors, where work orientated strictly to the needs of the division. the former assists the latter to start and operate new Yet we all recognize that there should be what might be plants and in process changes. We now come to an called a floating research force, which will not be tied area in which in our company research has swallowed down to production problems or parochial outlooks production. We often say we used to have a pilot but will be a place where problems can be entertained plant and the manufacturing department stole it. not directly connected with present operations. This Actually this is not the case. Research stole part of does not mean that we have here a sort of academic manufacturing. During the war the pilot plant in laboratory-the problems are likely to be quite as St. Louis was completely absorbed in small scale manu- mundane as those in the divisional laboratories-but facture and since then has so functioned. This was due they will be in fields unlikely to be handled by those to the fact that a t the time we could not build new laboratories. Likewise the floating research force is able plants and had to utilize what we had. Since the war in times of stress to pick up a problem which the other a new pilot plant has been built, but both have con- laboratories are not able to handle, and bring forth tinued under the management of the research depart- results in time for use. ment. The proper way to run a central research laboratory First let us ask ourselves what is small? There is no is to sell the development to a division a t any stage a t nice answer to that, but we consider that in the small which they will pick it up, and then go on to work on products plant we should be dealing with products of something else. Our problem has never been one of the order of five to ten thousand lb. per month of or- not having ideas, but of never being possessed of ganic chemicals. A heavy chemical division would enough manpower and money to carry all of them out. obviously laugh a t such a definition until they took a Final design and plant construction are handled by look a t the dollars. Possibly a fine chemical concern either the divisional engineering organization or a simiwould be astounded to hear that 10,000 lb. per month lar floating force of engineers, called the General Engiwas small. At any rate the measure shows the range. neering Department, which functions in engineering Here is a tie-in to sales and commercial chemical much as the Central Research Department does in development as well as to production, and the natural research. It, too, is' concerned with matters not so start of the whole idea was in the second purpose of a closely allied to the operation of any one division, but
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principles are the same. We see no reasons why they should adopt body and soul any particular procedure, nor do we feel that other companies should copy what CONCLUSION we do, as such. Life is constant adaptation and me No system is as tight as it seems and in describing change just as soon as we find anything better. We must remember that both research and producthe relation between research, engineering, and production to you, as carried out a t Monsanto, it has been tion men are simple human beings, and if treated as such necessrtry in some parts to oversimplify and perhaps will work smoothly together. Honest differences of in others to make it seem more complicated than it is in opinion are not necessarily pigheadedness, but perhaps practice. There are many shortcuts, but they vary merely lack of salesmanship. Both groups could profit with each problem. What I have been describing is by early and often doses of human relations training. the procedure applied to organic chemical manufacture. If education is a short cut to experience, why should we Some of our other plants use variants but the general always learn the hard way? of importance to the company as a whole, and it also acts as a strategic force where the pressure is greatest.
