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TEACHING SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Miguel Valcárcel, Gary D. Christian, and Rafael Lucena Anal. Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ac400323m • Publication Date (Web): 25 Apr 2013 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on April 28, 2013

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Analytical Chemistry

Feature article. “Analytical Chemistry” Revised manuscript. Clean version TEACHING SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 1

2

1

M. Valcárcel , G. D. Christian and R. Lucena 1. Department of Analytical Chemistry. University of Córdoba. Campus of Rabanales. 14071 Córdoba, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] 2. Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 981951700, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Analytical chemistry is key to the functioning of a modern society. From early days, ethics in measurements have been a concern, and that remains today, especially as we have come to rely more on the application of analytical science in many aspects of our lives. The main aim of this article is to suggest ways of introducing the topic of social responsibility and its relation to analytical chemistry in undergraduate or graduate chemistry courses.

Keywords: Teaching, Social Responsibility, Analytical Chemistry

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The teaching and practice of analytical chemistry reflect the evolution of measurement science over time. Qualitative and quantitative measurements can be traced to prebiblical times, and have been important throughout the history of humans, and today are key to the functioning of a modern society. The perceived value of gold and silver was the first incentive to acquire analytical knowledge. The balance is recorded in the earliest documents found, being ascribed to the Gods.1 The importance of ethical use of the balance is reflected in Proverbs 11:1: “A false balance is an abomination to the Lord, but a just weight is his delight”. The Babylonians, in 2600 B.C., relegated the supervision of standard weights to the priests. So ethics and social responsibility have been issues over the eons, and remain today. This article reflects these continued concerns and how we can impart the importance to students.

The late Charles Reilley said, in his ACS Fisher Award in Analytical Chemistry Award address, “Analytical chemistry is what analytical chemists do”.2 But we can be more specific. The Federation of European Chemical Societies had a contest to describe analytical chemistry. The winner was Karl Cammann of the University of Munster, who said analytical chemistry provides the methods and tools needed for insight into our material world for answering four basic questions about a material simple:3

•

What? (qualitative analysis)

•

Where? (spatial analysis)

•

How much? (quantitative analysis)

•

What arrangement, structure, or form? (speciation)

This appropriately imparts the importance of analytical chemistry in the function of a modern society. And the ethical application of these questions is important for the proper functioning of society.

In this article, we address the importance and teaching of ethics and social responsibility as they relate to the practice of analytical chemistry. We first introduce the concept of social responsibility in society in general, as codified in governmental definitions and guidelines. Then we discuss the relevance of these in analytical chemistry, and how we may teach these concepts 2 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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to students.

1. Concept of Social Responsibility The concept of Social Responsibility grew from the consequences of the spectacular human achievements obtained in the last decades thanks to numerous scientific and technical advances. The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4,5 brought these concerns into fruition in the enterprises context. The CSR concept is nowadays supported by international standards such as the ISO 26000:2010 guidance,6 the EFQM framework for Social Responsibility,7 the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)8 and the Social Accountability SA 8000:2008,9 among others. They are based on general documents such as United Nations Global Compact10 or the approaches from OECD11 and ILO12 to the topic. All of them can be considered excellent frameworks and tools for applying the Social Responsibility approach to a wide variety of organizations, covering all human activities.

2. Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry (SRAC)

With the above introduction and background of Social Responsibility, we can associate these activities under the umbrella of Analytical Chemistry. The description of SRAC has been recently published13 and is briefly explained here by describing its definition as well as its internal and external connotations that can be useful to deal with the teaching-learning process of this crucial topic. The goal of this report is to broaden the introduction of the concept to students in this world of increasing accountability, and to provide examples that bring life to the concept.

2.1 Definition of SRAC

SRAC can be defined for the (bio)chemical information generated in analytical laboratories and/or onsite systems under the responsibility of analytical chemists as:

“The awareness of the impact in societal areas (e.g., health, agrifood, industry), and on the environment, of the (sustainably) produced (bio)chemical knowledge derived from the analysis of natural and artificial objects/samples, and its correct transmission to circumvent 3 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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misunderstandings, false expectations and non justified alarms. It is related to the ethical principles

of

the

people

involved

in

Analytical

Chemistry

activities

(technicians,

analysts/researchers and managers), as well as the recipients of the analytical knowledge”.

This definition contains both internal and external connotations, which are considered in the following sections (see Figure 1). It is based on the hierarchy raw data-information-knowledge.14

2.2. Internal connotations of SRAC

The internal connotations of Social Responsibility of the (bio)chemical information are related to the generation of data. Two connotations can be differentiated: A. the achievement of the highest quality level of the delivered (bio)chemical information, and B. the sustainable production of (bio)chemical information. Both connotations are hierarchical since the main goal of Analytical Chemistry is to appropriately solve a given analytical problem. Once the analytical problem is defined, it would be desirable to reduce the negative impact that the analytical methodology may have on operators and also on the environment. Although in some circumstances (e.g., some official methods) environmental issues are not considered as crucial aspects, these connotations should be considered in the development of new analytical methods especially those to be used in repetitive analysis. The latter connotation can be considered in the concept of “Green Methods of Analysis”, whose objective is to minimise or to avoid the contamination of air, waters and soils/sediments arising from the operations carried out in analytical laboratories. A detailed description of the principal approaches to implement clean methods of analysis is beyond the scope of this paper, despite being no doubt, the most known facet of SRAC, and this report will emphasize the importance of obtaining high quality data, with emphasis on properly transmitting it to the appropriate people or agencies. For information on ways of achieving “green analytical chemistry”, see the works of de la Guardia and colleagues.15, 16

2.3. External connotations of SRAC

The external connotations of SRAC are related to the transmission of data, information (results) and knowledge (reports) to the social agents needing them in order to make founded and timely 4 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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decisions in a great variety of activity areas.

3.Teaching SRAC The training of analytical chemists should impart the purpose and importance of analytical measurements, that:

1. Accuracy in the design and implementation of the analyses is essential, as is the precision with which the analysis answers the critical question sought, and without bias. 2. A clear reporting of results and their interpretation with respect to the initiating question, including uncertainties, is key. 3. Analytical data is a central component in the setting of public policy and can have a strong influence on public opinion on scientific findings. An appreciation of social responsibility aspects of analytical chemistry as outlined here can help in framing these principles. The external and internal connotations of SRAC mentioned above can be easily exploited and adapted to be a part of the analytical message in the classrooms and laboratories. After presenting and discussing the most relevant objectives, the essential aspects of the topic are then described using the strategy based on the multianswering of key questions summarized in Figure 2, conceptualized in terms of the five basic questions of what? (to teach), how? (to teach it), who? (to teach it), where? (to teach it), and when? (to teach it).

3.1 Objectives SRAC teaching can contribute to the student´s education and training through the following specific aims: 1) To reinforce students’ personal competences related to ethical behaviour, professional responsibilities, etc.;

2) To help students acquire skills in the implementation and management of Social Responsibility, a topic of growing importance in the majority of big and SME enterprises. This will be well appreciated by employers. The current situation of Social Responsibility is



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similar to that of quality 20-30 years ago. It is a training for new jobs, as was done for quality training in the past;

3) To demonstrate, with the use of examples from real life, the important role that Analytical Chemistry as an informative discipline is playing and can play in the improvement of human life and in the preservation of the environment; and

4) To minimise the potential gap between analysts/analytical laboratories and society by promoting the generation of sustainable quality (bio)chemical information and avoiding the incorrect ways of transmission of this information/knowledge.

3.2 Internal Connotations

The analytical chemistry course is really devoted to obtaining accurate and precise data, using a variety of techniques and tools for different circumstances, requirements, and applications. So this aspect of SRAC is covered using topics selected by the instructor. Analytical courses and texts now may contain a section on good laboratory practice, with emphasis on validation of results.17 This would be a good place to emphasize the importance of SRAC, highlighting the importance of accurate analytical information in setting of public policy. This is generally not adequately addressed in current analytical chemistry curricula. On the other hand, the minimization of contamination originating by the laboratories is also an important aspect of the internal connotations of SRAC. The so-named green methods of analysis15,

16

should be

considered in teaching SRAC.

3.3 External Connotations

It is here that courses typically do not present the importance of how best to report and interpret analytical data, which is really at the heart of why we perform analyses. To place the following discussions in perspective, it is important to emphasize the general public perception of analytical results. They probably do not understand the nuances of the choice of analytical methods, vis-a-vis interferences, required sensitivity and precision, and the confidence level of 6 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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the results. The analyst must communicate to the requester that careful consideration should be given to what is requested, ask what the results will be used for, and how well do they need to be known. This will help assure the analysis does not lead to results that are less than optimum for the purpose. Cost, of course, is a factor in selection of the method, specially when results may have significant impact on policy or public exposure or personal harm, an analyst should ideally be part of the team responsible both for formulating the question to be answered by the laboratory, and the wording of the report of the study. This person may be separate from the lab to which samples are submitted, to minimize bias. Likewise, to guard against incorrect or misleading wording presented in a final report, the analyst should offer to assist in the report. With this in mind, following are some examples of causes for obtaining and transmitting inappropriate analytical information:

First, the failure can originate as a consequence of the disconnect between the delivered and required (bio)chemical information.18 Nowadays, the required information is the third basic standard of Analytical Chemistry, in addition to the classical ones: tangible standards (i.e., CRMs) and written standards.19 This requirement is crucial in the selection and design of analytical methods. Thus, for instance, accuracy should be prioritised in the determination of the purity of a batch of gold, whereas this property is not so important to promote simplicity and rapidity in the determination of glucose in blood using a portable glucosimeter at home, so long as it meets guidelines.

The failure can originate when the information level required to make decisions does not correspond to the delivered information. For example, information of the delivered (bio)chemical information could be unnecessarily high; i.e., contain too much irrelevant information. Consider the case of deciding the extent of contamination by hydrocarbons in water. A laboratory may be asked for a total hydrocarbon index,20 the level of which is established by international bodies, consisting of the output of the laboratory of a long list of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons at parts per trillion levels, including uncertainties, which is of limited use to make decisions about the contamination of waters by hydrocarbons. On the other hand, the delivered information level could be lower than that required to make informed decisions; such is the case of the toxicity of waters caused by mercury; its total concentration is not enough because the different inorganic 7 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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and organometallic species of mercury present a wide range of toxicity effects making speciation mandatory

Second, the problem can arise from important differences existing between the types of information that can be finally communicated: raw data, information (results) and knowledge (reports), and how these are interpreted and by whom. In the scientific-technical realm, the reliability will ordinarily be higher than that obtained when results are interpreted and reported by social agents, who tend to extrapolate and generalise to make perhaps not well founded decisions. If a result is transmitted directly, its interpretation by the media or citizens can be wrong. Such may be the case of doping in cycling; if an analysis provides low concentrations of a banned substance, the immediate and perhaps false interpretation is that the cyclist has been doped. However, the conclusion might be different if the result is placed in the appropriate context (accepted levels posed by international bodies, levels of the drug during the days after and before the competition, possibility of an accidental intake, etc).

Third, the transmission problems can arise from the lack of expertise of the social agent that receives the (bio)chemical information. The possibility of success of an efficient and transparent communication increases as the level of the expertise on the topic of the receptor grows. Thus, the possibility of misunderstanding increases from a chemist with a specific expertise on the topic, to a politician without scientific/technical education.

Fourth, the role played by a press office of the body on which the analytical laboratory depends is crucial. Its behaviour can be honest when it comes to the efficient and transparent transmission of analytical knowledge, or it can produce deformations, looking for a high information impact that can lead to false extrapolations or non-founded warnings in society. Information about the detection of ultratrace levels of cocaine in the atmosphere of a city using sophisticated analytical techniques can be misused by communicating to exaggerate the reality in order to introduce attention-getting headlines in the newspapers, radio and TV news (an example being an article in Madrid, “White rain over Madrid”).

Fifth, the transmission failure can arise from the external manipulation of the samples to be 8 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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analysed and, in this way, the delivered (bio)chemical information would be false. There might be two possibilities: A) Fraudulent addition of the analyte to the object or sample; such is the case of the intended addition of hydrocarbons to a spring river in order to discard its use as water supplier of a village for obscure reasons (i.e., political, economical, etc.); and B) Fraudulent addition of a substance different from the analyte to the object or sample but which exhibits a series of interactions that lead to masking the analyte presence or concentration. This substance may interact with the object (i.e., diuretics in sport doping control, since they promote the rapid elimination of drugs), it could result in a negative interference in the corresponding analytical methodology (i.e., favouring the analyte retention in the elution step of a solid phase extraction procedure for pre-concentration). For example: a) a hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin, is employed by athletes to lower the testosterone /epitestosterone ratio;21 b) Epitestosterone has the similar effect; c) Diuretics, like furesamide, are used as masking agents since they favor the flushing of illicit drugs from the body through increased urination. A list of masking agents can be found in the 2013 Prohibited list international standard published by the World Anti-Doping Agency.22

Moreover, since Analytical Chemistry is also related to research and development activities, the ethics in publishing should be another interesting topic to be taken into account.

4. Possible approaches to teaching SRAC

We summarize now how one might incorporate the teaching of SRAC in the analytical chemistry curriculum. The main aspects are outlined in Figure 2 and described in the following sections by answering the key questions: what?, how?, who?, where?, and when?. These are suggested guidelines, but instructors could design approaches geared to their courses that draw upon specific examples and case studies. An integral approach to the topic is depicted in Figure 3

4.1. What topics should be selected to teach SRAC?

This simple question has several complementary answers, namely:



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First, SRAC teaching embraces both teaching analytical research ethics23 and the ethics of personnel (technicians, analysts and managers) involved in the analytical laboratories that deliver the (bio)chemical information. These complementary approaches should be properly combined in different situations and in different proportions according to the study level of those involved (undergraduate, master, doctorate).

We anticipate that students will readily relate to the right thing to do. But the issues of job pressures that will pressure employees to “fudge” or “cherry pick” results that will best meet the needs of the employer or funding agency should be a part of the discussion. Most have surely heard of people who have had to make the hard choice of being a whistle-blower, risking their job and the anger of colleagues, or going along with what they know is a deception at best. On the other hand, the whistle-blower should not only be looking for financial gain at the expense of others, if the issue is marginal or readily correctable – judge what is the right thing to do. This example of pressure should be a part of this material, especially on the more advanced level.

Second, the basic structure of the message to support the SRAC teaching-learning process can be based on the internal (delivering sustainable (bio)chemical information) and external (correct transmission to society of this information) connotations (see sections 3.2 and 3.3 above). This structure has been demonstrated to be adequate to describe SRAC.13 A description of the main topics of each alternative, its definition and contextualisation, as well as the objectives could be the subject matter of one or two independent lectures or tutorials.

Third, the material to support SRAC teaching and learning can be extracted and amplified from the key aspects of its internal and external connotations (see Figure 1). The topics that can support SRAC teaching in the classrooms (lectures, discussion seminars and case studies) and laboratories are described in Tables 1 and 2. The listed topics should be addressed in some detail, since they have almost never been presented in a systematic way in spite of being obvious and well known by experts in Analytical Sciences with SRAC in their backgrounds. Laboratory reports could be geared where possible to require discussion of social responsibility implications. For example, an analysis for blood glucose that is erroneous could result in improper patient diagnosis and treatment. An incorrect result of a GC determination of pesticides in river water, or 10 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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misinterpretation of the results, may result in improper fines for a farmer, or the opposite, no control for the pollution. A part of the interpretation of results by an agency is to know the guidelines for pesticide concentrations, but also requires an appreciation for the accuracy and precision. Fourth, the use of conceptual maps24 for describing SRAC, in both classrooms and in laboratories implementing analytical methods could be an interesting strategy in the SRAC teaching-learning processes. Their main purpose is to make our mental models explicit and to efficiently foster collaborative processes. An example of conceptual maps applied to teaching green methods of analysis is shown in Figure 4.

The importance of chemical information in different scientific or application areas makes Analytical Chemistry a central discipline. The application of social responsibility concept to Analytical Chemistry should consider this fact in order to clearly present to the students the impact that a good or bad professional performance may have. Figures 5 and 6 present four different cases of study that can be useful for this purpose. The selected examples cover not only external but also mixed relationships between Analytical Chemistry and the Social Responsibility concept. In fact, the first cases are focused on the impact that chemical results present in external realms such as doping control or agro-food analysis. In the last cases, a mixed approach is developed. In this sense, Analytical Chemistry has a double relationship with environmental analysis since chemical information can be used to detect a potential contamination, as well as to facilitate its remediation, but chemical analyses can be also a source of potential contamination due to the employed reagents and materials. Finally, AC may play a double role in R&D as chemical information allows the development of other scientific areas and Analytical Chemistry can also be the target of R&D.

The presentation of all the cases follows a similar scheme, comprising three consecutive activities of variable duration and importance. First of all, the role of Analytical Chemistry in each field is presented in a brief way under a classical learning model. Secondly, the significance of analytical information, its impact and peculiarities is also presented. Some of these aspects can be the source of a final discussion with the students under an active learning session. In this 11 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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sense, we also provide general topics that can be used in this final activity. In the following sections, the selected cases of study will be considered, briefly giving, when possible, useful resources to prepare the sessions.

4.1.1 Analytical social responsibility in doping control

Doping control is a hot topic due to the current incidents in cycling, being the Lance Armstrong case the most outstanding. The active role that an analyst should play in this context was recently presented by Faber and Ferré25 and this article could be a good initial resource for the discussion. The students must be aware of the aims of analytical chemistry in doping control as well as the impact that the delivery of wrong information may produce in an athlete’s career. Moreover, it would be desirable to provide the student with interesting topics in this context such as screening (including false positives) and confirmation analysis, legal concentration thresholds and the importance of the chain of custody in these analyses. Finally, additional topics for discussion are presented in Figure 5. The book edited by Thieme & Hemmersbach,26 especially the first chapter written by Muller and devoted to the history of doping and doping control, is quite interesting to prepare material for sessions.

4.1.2 Analytical social responsibility in agro-food sector

The agro-food sector requires chemical information of a different nature. Thus, the nutritional value of a commodity is fixed according to its composition in terms, among others, of protein, fat or carbohydrates. Furthermore, analytical results are critical to ensure the safety of a given product which should be free of any contaminant (organic, inorganic or biological). The role of Analytical Chemistry in the agro-food sector is complex and it evolves continuously. New aims, different to the traditional ones, appear continuously such as the detection of potential allergens, the detection of frauds or even the control of transgenic products. The latter topics can be discussed under the Social Responsibility framework using as resources the USP Food Fraud Database27 and selected examples, respectively. 12 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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The binomial profit-safety issue could be an additional topic. The decision of the safety or not of a given product is taken according to the analytical results, so a wrong response may have a negative incidence on consumers’ health or on the economic profit of a corporation, which in some contexts are extremely powerful.

4.1.3 Analytical social responsibility in environmental analysis.

This topic is quite interesting to present the double relationship between Analytical Chemistry and other disciplines as we have previously mentioned. The consideration of the Social Responsibility concept in this context should involve the presentation of the green analytical chemistry principles and the active role with tangible examples that Analytical Chemistry should play in the prevention,28 detection and mitigation of pollution.29

Concerning the significance of analytical information, different topics can be presented and later on discussed with the students. First of all, a general overview of the international environmental norms making emphasis on their significant differences (such as the glyphosate threshold in the EU and US) would be interesting. The types of environmental analysis (global index, discriminated and speciation analyses) are also of interest for a discussion.

4.1.4 Analytical social responsibility in R&D.

The application of the Social Responsibility concept in R&D covers a wide range of aspects which may provide an intensive and fruitful debate with the students. Among all these aspects, three specific ones have been highlighted in Figure 6:

The selection of research topics should be made with the aim to produce a clear advance in analytical science, taking risks and facing up to challenges.

· A change of paradigms is required. In this sense the final objective of a research should be the increase of scientific knowledge, not only the final publication of an article. The current 13 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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evaluation of science and scientists (which has a clear effect on funding), where the quantitative indexes have a high specific weight, could be an interesting discussion topic with the students.

· Ethics of publishing should be considered as a key aspect in R&D, and it can be explained through real cases of misconduct.30,31 These references report the largest case of ethical violation in chemistry, perpetrated by an analytical chemistry professor, who published some 70 papers in 25 different journals over a three year period, all fake.

It would also be interesting the consideration of collateral ethical topics on publishing, such as the selection of potential reviewers32 or the articles to be cited.

A source of case studies of scientific misconduct is the National Institutes of Health Office of Research Integrity.33 Many deal with clinical or medical research, but students can learn from reading these, and perhaps find some chemistry related ones on which to report. The site also has a training video. Editors often experience misconduct in the form of plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and falsification. Example cases of all these experienced by GDC as Editor-in-Chief of Talanta for over twenty years are given in a talk on “Ethics in Scientific Writing: How to Write How Not to Write a Paper”. It is available online in two different webpages.34,35

4.2. How could SRAC be taught?

The way in which SRAC can be introduced in the teaching-learning process of the Analytical Chemistry discipline can have various approaches, depending on different but complementary criteria that are commented on below and schematised in Figure 2.

First, instead of the traditional “phenomenon-based approach”, it may be better to use an “issuebased approach”,36 which is based on the combination of discussion processes, presentation of controversial issues and access to knowledge.

Second, one effective way of teaching-learning SRAC is by combining the vertical and 14 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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transversal approaches. The vertical approach is based on delivering a lecture, a seminar or a tutorial on the topic; because of time limitations, it would not be possible to complete the teaching-learning message just in one hour, time that would be adequate just to develop the SRAC framework. This approach could be complemented (in the combined or mixed approach) with the transversal one, which can be defined as the distribution of the key aspects of SRAC among the different Analytical Chemistry courses. The basics of SRAC at least should be presented in the introductory analytical chemistry course, e.g., the quantitative analysis course in the U.S. As suggested above, the instructor could highlight the significance and importance of accurate analytical information in setting public policy, as well as in many other aspects of our lives such as food safety, medical decisions, forensic analyses, the environment, regulations, and manufacturing.

Third, it is necessary to teach SRAC, combining the traditional way of teaching with new pedagogical approaches based on the promotion of interactive participation of the students and the use of new information technologies.37

Fourth, the use of several complementary case studies developed and presented by students, emphasising the internal and external facets of SRAC, would be very useful for the teachinglearning process.

4.3. Who is involved in SRAC teaching?

As regards the personnel involved in SRAC teaching, it is helpful to identify the stakeholders. Figure 2 details who might be involved, including professionals after graduating. But our goal is to concentrate on academic instruction.

The people involved in the SRAC teaching-learning process are the students, and teachers of the educational centres. As far as the students are concerned, they could be undergraduates, graduates, people in master and/or doctorate degree programs, or even employees working in enterprises or in educational institutions in the frame of instruction or continuous training. The organization of courses/seminars for potential teachers is strongly recommended for the 15 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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introduction of the topic in these studies.

4.4 When should SRAC be taught?

Teaching should gradually increase from undergraduates to doctoral students, using different strategies (i.e., from one or two on-hour lectures given by teachers at the very beginning, to the presentation and discussion of case studies by students). In addition, the Social Responsibility of routine analytical laboratories should be introduced.

4.5 Where could SRAC be taught?

This question is unequivocally related to the question “when?” and other aspects (i.e., vertical, transversal and mixed approaches) as explained in previous sections of this article. There are several ways to answer this question, some of which are commented on before. The place where the SRAC teaching-learning process is implemented is considered here (see also Tables 1 and 2).

First, it is mandatory to convey an overall message of SRAC. This statement is reflected in Tables 1 and 2. The only way to do this is by delivering one or two one-hour lectures. The topics to include in each lecture can be deduced and amplified from the contents of sections 1 and 2 above. Specifically, it should be introduced in the first contact of students with an analytical chemistry course. It should be an integral part of graduate education where deemed appropriate.

Second, laboratories are perfect places to deliver the message of SRAC. Specific exercises based on the emphasis of critical determination of a specific analyte are a good option.

Third, some of the facets of SRAC can be the subject matter of discussion seminars, in which the active participation of the students should be promoted. One of the ways to achieve this goal is by the previous distribution among the students of a short description of the SRAC specific topic to be dealt with, and a list of 10-20 questions that they should answer during the seminar.


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Fourth, the case study approach is the most promising way to make the SRAC teaching-learning process more effective. Of course, a general SRAC framework should be previously established (i.e., in lectures, seminars). The selection, presentation and discussion made by the students (under the teacher guidance) of selected examples representing different SRAC facets is highly recommended.

5. FINAL REMARKS

The acquisition of knowledge and skills on Social Responsibility in general and on SRAC in particular, could be a new goal of Analytical Chemistry teaching. The two main contributions that can be achieved by applying the proposal of the present paper are the following:

1.- To enrich the incipient CV of students by introducing a topic of growing interest in big and SME enterprises, as “quality” was 20-30 years ago, and

2.- To indirectly disseminate the important role that Analytical Chemistry can play in the societal and environmental realms and, in this way, to promote its positive image among future generations.

The authors are fully aware of the fact that the time windows to teach are very limited. Therefore, in this sense, the inclusion of SRAC in the analytical teaching-learning process is not an easy task. Ordinarily it should imply the removal of some almost obsolete topics or to shorten others in the introductory part of this discipline as well as in laboratories, seminars and case studies. An additional and also important problem can arise from the refractory attitude of teachers to introduce changes, as well as the time that they should devote to introduce SRAC in the teaching-learning process. Students should be the “stars” of the teaching-learning process, which should be overall oriented to facilitate their employment. This can be achieved by making their CV more attractive for the employers by the inclusion of Social Responsibility in their curricula.



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Because the teaching approach described here is quite new, there is not an enough critical mass of experience and materials about SRAC to be shared by teachers of analytical courses. An international web discussion cluster managed by the authors through the web page (http://www.uco.es/investiga/grupos/FQM-215/) could be an excellent support to promote teaching SRAC.

6.- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT M.V. and R.L. like to be grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity for economic support to the project CTQ2011-23790. Authors like to thank M. Valcárcel junior for the opening art associated to the article.

7.- REFERENCES

1.- Christian G. D. Anal. Chem., 1995, 67, 532A-538A. 2.- Murray R. W. Anal. Chem., 1994, 66, 682A-682A. 3.- Cammann, K. Fresenius’ J. Anal. Chem., 1992, 343, 812-813. 4.- Carroll, A.B. Business Society, 1999, 38, 268-295. 5.-Lindgreen, A.; Swaen, V. Guest Editors of the especial issue on CSR, J. Management. Rew.,2010, 12, 1-76. 6.- ISO 2600:2010 Guidance on Social Responsibility. 2010, ISO, Genève. 7.-

EFQM

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http://www.efqm.org/en/PdfResources/FrameworkCSR.pdf (accessed April 19, 2013). 8.- Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). https://www.globalreporting.org (accessed April 19, 2013). 9.-SA 8000:2008 standard on Social Accountability. SAI (Social Accountability International, 2008 http://www.sa-intl.org (accessed April 19, 2013). 10.-United Nations Global Compact 2012, http://www.unglobalcompact.org (accessed April 19, 2013). 11.- OECD guidelines for multinational enterprises, 2001, http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/ (accessed April 19, 2013).


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April 19, 2013). 13.-Valcárcel, M.; Lucena, R. Trends Anal. Chem., 2012, 31, 1-7. 14.-Valcárcel, M.; Simonet, B.M. Trends Anal. Chem., 2006, 27, 490-495. 15.-Armenta, S.; Garrigues, S.; de la Guardia, M. Trends Anal. Chem., 2008, 27, 497-511. 16.- de la Guardia, M.; Armenta, S. Green Analytical Chemistry. CAC series of books, 2011, vol. 57. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 17.- Christian G. D. Analytical Chemistry, 6th ed. 2004, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ. 18.-Valcárcel, M. Talanta, 2011, 85, 1707-1708. 19.-Valcárcel, M.; Ríos, A. Anal. Chim. Acta, 1999, 400, 425-432. 20.-Baena, J.R.; Valcárcel, M. Trends Anal. Chem., 2003, 22, 641-646. 21. Hyde, T.E.; Gengenbach M.S. Conservative management of sport injuries, John and Barlett publishers, 2007 22. World Anti-Doping Agency, 2013 Prohibited list international standard, available at http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Prohibitedlist/2013/WADA-Prohibited-List-2013-EN.pdf (accessed April 19, 2013). 23.- McGuffin, V.L. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 2008, 390, 1209-1215. 24.- Miranda Correia, P.R. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 2012, 402, 1979-1986. 25. Faber, K.; Ferré, J. Analytical Scientist, 2013, 2, 17-18. 26. Thieme D.; Hemmersbach T. Doping in sports, Springer, Heildeberg, 2010. 27. US Pharmacopeial convention, USP Foood Fraud Database, http://www.foodfraud.org/ (accessed April 19, 2013). 28.

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http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/basicinfo.html (accessed April 19, 2013). 29. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Securing and Sustaining Water Systems Research, http://www.epa.gov/nhsrc/aboutwater.html#ccm (accessed April 19, 2013). 30. Schulz, W. G. Chem. Eng. News 2008, 18, 37-38. 31. Service, R. F. Science 2008, 319, 1170. 32. Sweedler J. V. Anal. Chem. 2012, 84, 3857–3857.



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33. National Institutes of Health Office of Research Integrity, www.ori.hhs.gov (accessed April 19, 2013) 34.

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http://depts.washington.edu/ssnet/biological_futures/colloquium.html (accessed April 19, 2013)

35. Center of Nanoscale Systems, http://www.cns.cornell.edu/capes.html (accessed April 19, 2013). 36. Pedretti, E. School Science and Mathematics, University of Toronto, 2010, 99, 174-181. 37.- National Research Council, Discipline-Based Education Research, 2011, USA.


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ACRONYMS

CRM: Certified reference material

ILO: International Labour Organization

ISO: International Organization for Standarisation

OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

SME: Small and Medium Enterprises’

SRAC: Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry

UN: United Nations



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FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1.- Definition of Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry (SRAC) based on its internal and external facets.

Figure 2.- Description of SRAC teaching by answering basic questions about the topic (what?, how?; who?; when; and where?). For details, see text.

Figure 3. Complementary aspects of SRAC teaching and their relative distribution in the overall temporal window of students (from undergraduate to doctorate studies). Target persons for teaching SRAC: Those in routine analytical laboratories and those in research laboratories. For details, see text

Figure 4. Conceptual maps (24) for teaching “green methods of analysis” based on page 26 of M. de la Guardia and S. Armenta’s book (16).

Figure 5. Analytical Social responsibility in doping control and agri-food sector. A case study.

Figure 6. Analytical social responsibility in environmental analysis and research and development. A case study.


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TABLES CAPTIONS

Table 1.- Teaching internal connotations of SRAC.

Table 2.- Teaching external connotations of SRAC.



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Table 1. Teaching internal connotations of SRAC. SRAC TOPIC (internal connotations)

PREFERABLE PLACES/RESOURCES FOR THE TEACHINGLEARNING PROCESS DISCUSSION CASE LECTURE(S) LABORATORIES SEMINARS STUDIES

Quality of the (bio)chemical + + information Green methods of + ++ ++ analysis Legend: +, recommended resource; ++, especially recommended resource.

++ ++

Table 2. Teaching external connotations of SRAC. TOPIC OF SRAC (external connotations)

PREFERABLE PLACES/RESOURCES FOR THE TEACHINGLEARNING PROCESS DISCUSSION CASE LECTURE(S) LABORATORIES SEMINARS STUDIES

Consistency between delivered and required + + ++ ++ analytical information Impact of delivering data or information + + ++ ++ or knowledge Reliability of transmission of (bio)chemical information based + + ++ ++ on the expertise level of the recipients Role played by a press officer as intermediary + + + between laboratory and society External manipulation of + ++ ++ objects/samples Publishing ethics in Analytical + + ++ Chemistry research Legend: +, recommended resource; ++, especially recommended resource. 24 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Authors’ biographies Miguel Valcárcel is a full professor of Analytical Chemistry at the University of Córdoba since 1976. He is the author and co-author of 750 scientific articles, seven monographs, eight textbooks and 16 book chapters. He has been the coordinator of 25 Spanish and 14 international scientific projects, as well as having 12 contracts with private firms and acting as a promoter of a spin-off devoted to nanotechnology. He has been the co-supervisor of 66 doctoral theses and an invited lecturer in 70 international meetings. He is the recipient of scientific national (e.g., Award in Chemistry in Spain, 2005) and international (e.g., Robert Boyle Medal of RSC, 2004) prizes.

Gary Christian is Professor Emeritus and Divisional Dean of Sciences Emeritus at the University of Washington. He is the author of over 300 publications and 6 books, including the text, Analytical Chemistry. His awards include the ACS Division of Analytical Chemistry Award for Excellence in Teaching and the ACS Fisher Award in Analytical Chemistry. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate Degree from Chiang Mai University, Thailand, and the University of Maryland inducted them into their distinguished alumni Circle of Discovery. He has been Editor-in-Chief of Talanta since 1989.

Rafael Lucena is associate professor of Analytical Chemistry, Department at the University of Córdoba since 2010. His main research interests comprise different areas such as the development of new microextraction techniques, especially those which integrate the stirring and extraction elements in the same devices. Moreover, he is interested in the use of novel materials (e.g., ionic liquid and nanoparticles) in this context. Nowadays, he is working on the development of chemical (MIP) ad bio-recognition (aptamers) extraction phases. He has coauthored about 50 scientific articles and 3 chapters of books.



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