The HISTORY of CHEMISTRY at PHILLIPS ACADEMY ROSCOE E. DAKE Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts
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HILLIPS ACADEMY was founded largely through the interest and efforts of three members of the Phillips family: Esquire Samuel Phiiips; his brother, Dr. John Phillips; and his son, Judge Samuel Phillips, Jr. Of these three men the first two supplied most of the funds needed to establish the school, but it was Samuel Phillips, Jr., who originated the plan and who enlisted the aid of his father and uncle in its support. With a student body of thirteen, the school was opened on April 30, 1778, in a remodeled
worthy of note, however, that chemical manufacture had played a part in the early destiny of the school. Early in 1776, under encouragement from the General Court in Watertown, Samuel Phillips, Jr., had established a plant in Andover for the production of gunpowder for the Revolutionary forces. Cooperating with Judge Phillips, and performing numerous tests which nearly cost him his eyesight, was a boyhood friend, Eliphalet Pearson. As it was a t this time that Phillips was considering the foundation of the school,
ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION AND TEACHERS SEMINARY
Phillips Hall was renamed Foxcroft Hall in 1924. It is a senior dormitory today. Pearson Chapel was moved in 1924. It is used now as a recitation hall. Bartlett Hall is a senior dormitory at the present time.
carpenter's shop with Eliphalet Pearson as Preceptor. there is little doubt that Pearson was aware of his plans Over two years later, on October 4, 1780, the passage and that their mutual friendship and interests led to of the Act of Incorporation was to be the last legislative the choice of Eliphalet Pearson as the head of the new act of the old Provincial Court of Massachusetts, and school. In spite of this evidence of Pearson's knowlPhillips Academy became the &st incorporated wad- edge of chemistry, and despite the fact that in 1780 Judge Phillips was a charter member of the American emy, though not the first academy, in this country. The curriculum of the new school was a classical one Academy of Arts and Sciences, science played no part in and was to remain so for over half a century. It is the curriculum of the new school. The courses of study 403
included only Latin and Greek, with scanty attention to mathematics, and some reading in works on religion. The religious feelings of many of those connected with the Academy were strong and in 1808 a Theological Seminary was established as a separate institution, though under the same board of trustees. For a hundred years i t dominated the life of the community, and, throughout most of that period, completely overshadowed the Academy. The Seminary prospered financially, and it was inevitable that much of the time and interest of the trustees was devoted to its affairs. The Academy gained much from its close association with the Seminary, but i t probably did not make the progress i t would have made had i t received the undivided attention of the trustees. That science in any fonn entered the sacred precincts of a strictly classical school long before it found a place in many institutions of similar type was due mainly to a n educational experiment which began in 1830. The new project was largely the result of the enthusiasm of
Samuel Farrar, a trustee of the academy from 1802 to 1846 and its treasurer from 1803 to 1840. "Squire" Farrar, as he was generally called, attempted to solve several educational problems of the day through the establishment of an "English Classical School." This, though under the same board of trustees, was to he independent of the academy for some years and a somewhat scorned and neglected poor relative of its older sister, the Classical Academy, for many more. "Squire" Farrar wished to meet the educational needs of two main groups and the new school was designed to take care of both. First, it was to be a normal school for the preparation of teachers; and second, a technical school of a somewhat vocational nature. As this project preceded the establishment of normal schools in Massachusetts by some nine years, the need for the former ,is clear, and i t was this feature of the
school which was most important in its early years. The latter was in answer to the demands of those who were critical of the classical program as a means of preparation for life, especially for those who were not to continue their education in college but were "to enter a t once in the various occupations of men in business." In the first catalog of the new school these objectives are explicitly stated as follows. "The most prominent object is to educate Instructers of the Common and other schools. Another object is to educate practical men for all the departments of common life." Fortunately for his plan the vision of the founders had made the establishment of such a school possible, and funds were available from the estate of William Phillips, a third brother of the two who had been so largely instrumental in founding the academy. In the spring of 1829 a new building, to be known as the "Stone Academy," was begun. "Squire" Farrar himself was the architect, as he had been for many other academy buildings, and, if for no other reason, he probably would long be remembered for this child of his brain, which has been described as "the strongest and ugliest structure ever produced by the hand of man." It was a three-story building, the basement of which included a chemical laboratory furnished with apparatus for an extensive series of illustrations. In this new building the school was opened in September, 1830, the first school expressly for the preparation of teachers in the Commonwealth. It was in connection with the new school that chemistry was first taught on Andover Hill. As principal of the Teacher's Seminary, as i t was called, the trustees employed Samuel Read Hall, who, some years earlier, had established a t Concord, Vermont, a teachers' school which was apparently the first normal school in this country. The catalog of the spring term of 1831 lists a faculty of five, of whom three were students a t the Theological Seminary. One of these part-time theologs is listed as the teacher in chemistry. This catalog further states that "A laboratory will soon be completed and furnished with suitable apparatus for pursuing the study of chemistry"; the catalog of the fall of the same year, that "Lectures will be given on chemistry." Latin and Greek were not included in the list of studies but a t extra expense instruction could be obtained in French, German, philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, and electricity. That the new school was designed to emphasize science is shown by the fact that from the limited funds available the trustees had provided for the following, listed in the catalog of 1832, as "Apparatus." "A magic lantern with several hundred diagrams for illustrating astronomy, natural and civil history, etc.; an electrical machine of a very superior kind and apparatus for extensive experiments; a laboratory furnished with suitable apparatus for illustrations in chemistry." When one considers the limited finances of the school and that the tuition charge was only five to six dollars a term, it is easy to see that such equipment was con-
A PlCTunE O P THE "VERY SUPERIOR ELECTRICAL MACHINE"ADVERTISEDI N THE CATALOG OF THE TEACHERS' SEMINARY IN 1831, AS ITAPPEARS TODAY. THEMETERSTICK(RIGHT,CENTER)INDICATES THE SIZEOF THE M A C H ~ N E
sidered a vital part of the new school. This conclusion is verified by the fact that purchases of new equipment were made yearly for some time. In successive catalogs are listed an "excellent pneumatic apparatus, a telescope, a cabinet of minerals, a barometer, and a very valuable solar microscope." By 1839, the catalog modestly boasts that the cost of all apparatus is above $2200. It is probable, but not certain, that some lectures on chemistry were given in 1830. However, both a course and lectures were included in the program of 1831. Just exactly what the content of the course included is not easy to determine, but the textbooks used were among the best of those available, even for colleges. In 1833, they included Eaton's, Comstock's, and Silliman's; in 1835, Turner's; in 1839, Beck's; and in 1840, Alonzo Gray's. That the instruction was thorough cannot be doubted, for by 1839 the entire spring term of the "Middle" year, the second of the threeyear course, was devoted to the study of only three subjects; philosophy, chemistry, and botany, of which the first was probably natural philosophy or physics. The judgment of a contemporary is to be found in the Annals of Education for August, 1832, in his description of a visit to Andover. "School books of a good character are selected, and the most improved methods of instruction adopted. But, while books and apparatus and hard study are deemed indispensable to thorough and efficient progress, much is accomplished by familiar, conversational lectures, giving the student ample opportunity for asking questions, suggesting
doubts, etc. No attempts are made to burry through a science for the sake of having gone through it; but constant, and, as i t appears to me, successful efforts are made to teach everything to which the pupil's attention is called thoroughly. . . . . In both departments of the school, there is nothing of that routine of mere memory work which is so often witnessed in our schools. Those methods are pursued, generally speaking, in every exercise, which give employment to the whole intellect, and not to certain favored faculties merely, while the rest are suffered to lie neglected. . . . Not only is everything rendered intelligible, but interesting; and the thinking powers of the pupil are called into useful activity. During my visit a course of chemical lectures was commenced by an assistant, which promised to be highly practical and useful. . . . . As a place of instruction, it justly ranks high; and I do not believe it has been too highly appreciated. But as a place of education, it bas still higher claims. Knowledge of the best kind is successfully circulated by the best means; but the capacity and disposition to make a good use of Knowledge, is regarded of still more importance. . . . ." The two departments of the Teachers' Seminary referred to are evidently the Preparatory Department, in some catalogs called "A Model School for the practical illustration of the Art of Teaching"; and the Teachers' Department, which included a General Department with a shorter and more irregular course. In this Model School pupils from the Teachers' Department sometimes assisted, but it had a separate and permanent
instructor and was not merely a school for practice teaching. One of the outstanding teachers a t the school during this period was Alonzo Gray; in 1836 an assistant from the Theological Seminary, but from 1837 to 1842 a full-time teacher of the natural sciences, chemistry, botany, geology and mineralogy, and, from 1839, of scientific and practical agriculture. He was the author of textbooks in chemistry, geology, and agriculture which were used not only a t Andover, but by other schools and colleges. The part he played in the development of the study of these sciences, particularly agriculture, has not been fully appreciated, for the work he began was not continued for long, and his later life was spent as the head of a Female Seminary in Brooklyn where he could have had but little use for his interest in scientific farming. Since agricultural colleges did not appear for some twentyfive years, he must he regarded as one of the pioneer teachers in this field. The establishment of the course in agriculture a t Andover was an outgrowth of the fact that many of the students were of limited means and reduced their expenses by working two hours each day on the school fann. To Gray, who had read extensively the works of English and German authors on the subject, this offered an opportunity to improve the lot of the New England farmer. With the eneouragement of the administration he began a textbook on agriculture which was used in the school in 1842. A study of this book reveals that i t contains many items generally regarded as modem developments in that field. Several methods of chemical analysis of soils are given, and its importance as a means leading to increased production of crops is stressed. Students were given the opportunity of witnessing these analyses, but that they were permitted to perform them seems doubtful. Considerable attention is given to arguments in opposition to Liebig's theory that plants derive all their carbon from the carbonic acid of the air, although photosynthesis was acknowledged. That Gray was influenced by his theological training is shown by the heading of one page--"The Benevolence of God," mention of which is generally omitted from modem texts on the subject. In his book on chemistry, which ran through forty editions, he uses some formulas and equations of a crude kind, though they were not yet used in all chemistry texts. One method of preparing chlorine, for example, reads, MnOP, Na C1, and 2S03 are conSOa, NaO S03, and C1. In the verted into MnO preface he emphasizes the importance of learning principles, rather than details, for, as he s t a t e s U T h e fundamental principles being thoroughly understood by the student, he is prepared to attend to the details with greater pleasure and success, as he will be able to connect the effects with their appropriate causes." Modem teachers who are inclined to believe that the study of chemistry a hundred years ago involved merely memory work would do well to note Gray's instructions. T o emphasize this study of principles he generally included a paragraph on "Theory" after the
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description of an experiment. In his Introduction is the following statement, "Science is classified knowledge." A letter, printed in the "Audover Townsman" of October, 1897, protests the credit given to Herbert Spencer for the inscription, "Science is organized knowledge," in the rotunda of the new Congressional Library, and points out that Gray should receive the credit, since Spencer did not appear as a writer until 1845. The author has had no opportunity to check the authenticity of the writer's claims. That the original plan of the school had been somewhat modified by 1839 is indicated by a manuscript, presumably written by Lyman Coleman, the Principal from 1837 to 1842, in an endeavor to secure further endowments for the school. Whereas his claims may have been somewhat exaggerated (at times they suggest modem advertising claims, or an endowment campaign) they do make clear that it was to be regarded as more than a Teachers' Seminary. He emphasizes that it is unique among American institutions in that it occupies an intermediate position between Academies and Colleges and stresses the fact that it offers unusual facilities for the study of the sciences, including scientific agriculture. The following excerpt is fairly typical of the manuscript. "The institution as may appear from this brief sketch is substantially an English High-School or College, and is designed to occupy an intermediate grade between our common Academic institutions, and our Universities and Colleges. It stands out single and alone on that wide and neglected interval that lies between the Academy and the College. There are multitudes of young men who, though they cannot traverse the extended course of a collegiate education, would, with suitable facilities, take a wider range of studies than that which is pursued in a grammar school or Academy. They would acquaint themselves, not only with Mathematics and Moral Science, hut with the various and interesting branches of Natural Science, Botany, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, etc. But where shall they look for the facilities, necessary for the prosecution of those studies? "There is not a single institution in our land, save our own, where these sciences are scientifically and systematically taught, and to which a young man can repair, with the hope of acquiring a competent knowledge of them, within the limits assigned for his education. The consequence is that a scientific, as well as literary education is needlessly and injuriously excluded from the great body of our youth, who are destined to occupy various and important stations in life, not only as instructor, but as manufacturers, mechanics, agriculturists, merchants, and men of fortune. Is it not expedient, then, that there should be a t least one institution in this country adapted to the wants and condition of that numerous and interesting class of young men above described?' One is tempted to wonder what the institution might have become had Coleman and Gray remained in charge of its affairs.
The enrolment of the school increased rather steadily from eighty in 1831 to two hundred one in 1842. But it must be remembered that the attendance of many students was irregular, especially those studying to be teachers, since they found employment in the district schools during the winter. The school had seemingly made an excellent beginning and had prospects for a brilliant future, but in reality it was in serious financial difficulties. Most of the available funds had been spent for equipment, and, in spite of appeals by the trnstees, further contributions were not forthcoming. The tuition charge was only fifty cents a week, and part of this was often paid for by labor rather than cash. Then, too, those connected with the Classical Academy, both students and faculty, looked upon it with contempt, and, in the words of Mr. Coleman, written a t a later date, "The total lack of sympathy and cooperation served to cast into shades and distances the Teachers' Seminary and to give it the air of an abandoned orphan, rather than a cherished part of the venerable institution." A revised curriculum rather carefully planned by Mr. Coleman was never put into action. "Squire" Farrar's influence and interest had waned, and, mainly for reasons of economy. the trustees voted to merge the two schools under one administration. Mr. Coleman and Mr. Gray were discharged "for want of means to retain them," and the two schools were formally joined in August, 1842. Thus the Teachers' Seminary became the "English department" of the older Academy, a title it retained until 1894 when it became the "Scientific department." The merger was one of theory, rather than fact. The department declined in its enrolment and was to play a minor part for many years. The causes of this were numerous. In addition to those already enumerated mention should be made of the lack of a permanent staff of teachers; of the establishment of normal schools, of the fact that the course did not prepare for college, and of the fact that not many farmers were wealthy enough to send their sons away to school. It was probably unfortunate for the department that, in 1837, Samuel Harvey Taylor had been appointed the Principal of the Classical Academy, a position he was to retain for thiiy-four years. "Uncle Sam," as he was known, dominated Phillips Academy throughout this period. He had a strong character and personality and was in many respects an able leader. He was, however, a firm believer in the classical education, and had no interest in the development of the new department. That i t survived during the next thirty years was probably due to the succession of capable men who were to serve as its leader. The first of these was William Wells, who left in 1847 as the result of a disagreement with "Uncle Sam," and who later became Superintendent of Schools in Chicago. James Eaton, who followed Wells, continued his work in spite of many annoyances and a staggering burden of teaching until his death in 1865. Shortly before his death, he, with other members of the faculty, ~ e t i tioned the trustees for relief from their load of ciass-
work, and a t the same time were bold enough to criticize the administration for the small amount of time they were allowed in which to teach mathematics to the members of the classical group who were turned over to them for this purpose. Their protests brought no immediate results, but were to have some influence after Taylor's death. Scientific agriculture disappeared from the school catalog in 1843, but chemistry continued to be taught. At times i t was for a single term only, and it must have played a rather unimportant part for some years. But the entire department received new impetus in 1866, when the philanthropist, George Peabody, gave the school a fund of twenty-five thousand dollars to establish a chair of mathematics and natural sciences, but which came to be used for science alone. This seems to mark a definite change for the better in the fortunes of the department of science. William Graves was the first appointee to the new chair, and during the next four years he rather thoroughly revised the course of study. No longer was special attention paid to future teachers, but definite steps were taken to mold the department into a scientific school preparing for college. For the first time members of the department "distinguished for their scholarship" were permitted to take a part in the public Exhibition of the Academy. In 1864 the Stone Academy was destroyed by fire, but by two years later it had been replaced by a much larger structure, the "Main Building," which was to serve as the chief recitation hall for both departments until 1924. Chemistry moved from t h e basement of the old building to the basement of the new, and evidently profited by the change, although the new quarters were not completely satisfactory. Graves, who was interested in higher education, left in 1870 to join the faculty of Marietta College. His successor, William Goldsmith, was unusually capable, and upon the death of "Uncle Sam" Taylor in 1871, he carried out the duties of the principal for the remainder of the year. Had he been a member of the classical school it is probable that he would have been chosen as the new principal, but the appointment went to Frederic Tilton instead. In the two years that he remained a t the Academy, Tilton did much to modernize the courses of study in the classical department. Modern languages were introduced, and the school, which had become almost entirely a preparatory school for Yalemainly because of a disagreement between Taylor and the authorities a t Harvardagain met the requirements of such institutions as Harvard which laid great stress upon the classics for entrance. In the English department, chemistry was established as a full-year course. In 1872, probably for the first time a t Phillips Academy, laboratory work was provided for the students in a course which included qualitative analysis. Dr. Cecil F. P. Bancroft, who took over the princ i ~ d ~inh 1873, i ~ did much to chance the status of the ~n~lish'de~artment. At his request, when George C.
Memll was appointed as Peabody Instructor in 1875, the position did not carry with i t the office of head of the English department. The Exhibitions of the two brancbes of the school were consolidated and henceforth there was to be a greater degree of real and constructive cooperation. Keen rivalry existed between the student bodies for many years, but the administration no longer frowned upon the younger department. Indeed, it was a t Dr. Bancroft's insistence that in 1882 a chemistry laboratory was built a t a cost of eight thousand dollars. This structure, which was of brick, thirty by forty feet in dimensions, was functional, rather than artistic, in its design. The laboratory had no ceiling but was left open to the rafters, affording excellent ventilation facilities. An ingenious arrangement whereby a double row of windows forming the peak of the roof could be opened also aided greatly in the removal of fumes and gases. The efficiency of this system can be guaranteed by the author who conducted classes there as late as 1928. To prevent the rains from leaking in, the entire peak of the roof had a housing on the exterior. The laboratory was fitted
with desks for thirty-two students. Running water was provided a t the desks, perhaps not until a later date, by first pumping it by hand from a well to a large tank suspended near the roof. At the east end of the building in a stained glass window is the motto, "Vive la Science," perhaps as a sort of triumphant note that chemistry had a t last emerged from the basement, and had a place of its own where the odors of chlorine and hydrogen sulfide would not become the stinks they seem to be to other teachers and students in near-by classrooms. The catalog of 1886 contains a statement of the advantages of the new building, which speaks volumes as to the earlier provisions for the subject. "The incidental advantages secured in this building are ample space, freedom from dampness, abundant light, the means of speedy and complete ventilation,
good drainage, a minimum of absorbing surfaces, and a minimum of fire risk." The existence of this building as an independent unit was of short duration. The scientific department had need for more recitation rooms and in 1892 the chemistry building became the east wing of the larger Graves Hall, which though largely used for science work, contained other recitation rooms as well. This building, which still stands, was recently remodeled to serve as a gymnasium for younger students. . Mr. Graves had returned to the school in 1881, and was to continue as Peabody Instructor until his voluntary retirement in 1908. This period had seen the development of the scientific schools, and there was now a definite need of the department for those students who wished to meet their entrance requirements. This could now be accomplished by the substitution of Latin for some of the work of the senior year; though, surprisingly enough, this usually meant omission of some of the science courses. The course of study in the scientific department was lengthened to four years in 1884, as a part of the plan to have both branches of the school provide preparation for college work. The standards were such that i t was not uncommon for students to enter advanced classes when they went on to college. Improvements in teaching can be partially attributed to Dr. Bancroft's efforts to have a permanent staff of teachers, and the increased part that he allowed them to take in the control and affairs of the school. Upon Dr. Bancroft's death in 1902, Dr. Alfred E. Steams succeeded him as principal, a title which, in 1928, was changed to that of Headmaster. Under his administration the school was to have an astounding growth in endowment and physical equipment, while maintaining its standards and enlarging the student body. In 1908, the Theological Seminary, which had been struggling against odds ever since an internal controversy in the eighties, moved to Cambridge, and, henceforth, the Academy was to have an independent board of trustees. For many years its influence had overshadowed that of the two branches of the Academy, and the trustees, frequently ministers themselves, had had a greater interest in its affairs than in those of the school. Funds were raised to purchase and remodel the buildings for the use of the growing Academy. Even more spectacular was the growth of the School during the years which saw the sesqui-centennial celebration of its founding in 1928. Through the generosity of many alumni, with Thomas Cochran contributing a large share, the funds of the Academy were greatly increased. Old buildings were moved and remodeled, and new ones were built in rapid succession. All this was done in such a way as to coordinate all phases of the school, and to serve not only to improve its facilities, but to make i t what many believe to be one of the most beautiful campuses in the country. With this enlargement of the school went a steady increase in the numbers of the faculty, a trend which Dr. Bancroft had initiated.
Throughout these years of growth and comparative prosperity of the Academy, the two departments had blended more and more into one. Following Dr. Stearns' retirement in 1933, due to ill health, Dr. Claude M. Fuess was appointed Headmaster. A revised cumcnlnm soon afterward made the classical languages optional, and permitted greater emphasis to be placed upon history, science and the fine arts in an attempt to provide a broader background for the precollege student. The faculty group was enlarged, until today it numbers seventy-five, with a student body of seven hundred, permitting of far greater attention to the needs of the individual boy, whether in or out of the classroom. This is in marked contrast to the early days of the school. James Eaton in his protest to the trustees in 1865 had stated that the average attendance in mathematics classes a t that time was seventy-seven and two-thirds boys. Chemistry shared in the general good fortune of the school. In 1928 the department was moved to the ground floor of Samuel F. B. Morse Hall where modem facilities and ample space and equipment are provided for teaching the subject. In 1895 Mr. James C. Graham had been appointed as instructor in chemistry, a position he retained until his retirement after forty-two years of service. Under
his guidance many hundreds of students were held to a high standard of work. Among the many able men who served as his assistant in the course during this period was Gilbert N. Lewis, who needs no introduction to chemists. The general character of the school kept the course essentially one which met the requirements for admission to any college. For a brief period a twohour course was taught in the second year, followed by a four-hour course in the senior year, and a t times it was necessary to form different sections because of the diierent requirements of the colleges. With the establishment of the College Entrance Board examinations these difficulties were removed. Since their establishment the course has been essentially one which would fully meet the requirements they have made. Some of the better students occasionally enter advanced work in college, but the establishment by many colleges of special courses for students who have training in chemistry has made this less common than formerly. The emphasis in the course is still that advocated by Alonzo Gray nearly a hundred years ago, "The fundamental principles being thoroughly understood by the student, he is prepared to attend to the details with greater pleasure and success, as he will be better able to connect the effects with their appropriate causes."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F u ~ s s C. , M., "An old New England school," Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts. 1917. GRAY,A,, "Elements of chemistry," 7th ed., Mark Newman. 1843. GRAY,A,, "Elements of geology," Harper & Brothers, New York City. 1853.
GRAY,A,, "Elements of scientific and practical agriculture," Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell. 1842. Catalogs of the Teachers' Seminary and of the Phillips Academy from 1831 to date. Numerous letters, clippings, and records of the early period of the school in the possession of the school library.
