The world ecotoxicology watch Here is how a number of international organizations are tackling many different problems of toxic substances in the environment
Thomas U. Kappeler Unicersity of Colorado Boulder, Colo. 80309
Increasing industrialization and greater dependence on chemical products throughout the world has led to a heightened concern for their effects on human health, and the nonhuman environment. Ecotoxicology, a subject of growing importance in environmental sciences, deals with the toxic effects of pollutants that industrialization and chemical products generate on living organisms, especially on populations and communities in defined ecosystems. This interdisciplinary field examines transfer pathways of pollutants, and their interactions with the environment. Rapid progress in analytical methodology and instrumentation has made it possible to detect chemical products and their residues in concentrations lower than parts per trillion. Difficulties, however, exist in determining risks of low-level chronic exposure, as well as in defining concentrations of cheinicals that show no toxic effects on human and non-human biota. These 412
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difficulties exist because very little is known about the natural biological variability, about synergistic and antagonistic effects of exposure to a multiplicity of chemicals, and about long-term toxic effects. Thus, regulatory agencies are faced with determining which scientific criteria and test methods provide sufficient information on possible toxic effects of chemical products. I n order to be able to control the production and distribution of such chemicals, and to force industry to provide the necessary information, descriptions of physicalchemical properties and test methods have to be compared, harmonized, and agreed upon on an international basis. In Europe The Commission of the European Communities (CEC) has submitted it proposal to the Council of Ministers for amending the European Economic Community (EEC) Directive of June 1967, on the harmonization of laws of the nine member countries, relating to classification, packaging and labeling of dangerous substances. The amendment introduces a notification procedure for newly marketed chemicals.
Manufacturers will be required to provide information on physicochemical properties, and on toxic and ecological effects of each new product, and to evaluate its potential hazard to man and the environment. Within the ongoing work program of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Chemicals Group, a Chemicals Testing Program was established in November 1977, in order to develop consistent data requirements and testing methods. The Program comprises six expert groups under the leadership of six OECD w m b e r countries. Its work will be completed before the end of this year. Five groups are preparing reports on test methods that can be used in practice to predict the effects ofchemicals and to identify their properties. A sixth group is considering the concept of step-sequence testing systems, including the baseline set of data required for an initial assessment of potential effects. The Chairmen of the Expert Groups form it Coordinating Group which provides a liaison between the Expert Groups and the Chemicals Group. This ensures that duplication is
0013-936X/79/0913-0412$01.00/0 @ 1979 American Chemical Society
avoided and that the program proceeds on schedule. Within the given time frame, these Groups will jointly prepare state-of-the-art reports on test methods that can be used to provide information on: physical-chemical properties of chemical substances (PhysicalChemistry Group; lead country: Germany), effects from chemical substances on biotic systems other than man (Ecotoxicology Group; lead country: Netherlands), degradation-accumulation of chemical substances (Degradation/ Accumulation Group; lead country: J apan/Germany), short-term effects of chemical substances on human health (ShortTerm Toxicology Group; lead country: UK), long-term effects of chemical substances on human health (LongTerm Toxicology Group; lead country: USA), and the concept of step-sequence testing systems (Step Systems Group; lead country: Sweden).
Additional activities Recently, a “Special Program on the Control of Chemicals” has been initiated within the OECD Chemicals Program. This program, which will be financed separately by the participating member countries and the Commission of the European Communities (CEC), aims to achieve international cooperation in the control of chemicals, and to facilitate the acceptability of data between Member countries. Specifically, this will include developing: consistent standards for good laboratory practice (effective means to enforce them may be considered a t a later stage) solutions to confidentiality of data, both to ensure international exchange of health and safety data and to provide adequate protection for legitimate trade secrets mechanisms to facilitate information exchange both with respect to substance-related data and to administrative actions an agreed international glossary of key terms. A further activity in the O E C D Chemicals Group is the Wildlife Sampling and Analysis Program, which aims at determining the suitability of wildlife species as trend indicators in the levels of environmental contamination by chemicals. This program, initiated on a voluntary basis in 1966, was formally accepted in 1972 and carried out by 13 member
e technical dossier on hazardous substances, review and elaborate
countries. Heavy metals and organochlorine residues were monitored and analyzed in marine and freshwater fish, as well as in birds. The conclusions of the statistical trend-analysis were reviewed last year. Possible future activities will be planned. In order to coordinate ongoing programs and to prevent duplication of efforts, information exchange is conducted through the participation of representatives of the Commission of the EEC in the various OECDChemicals Expert Groups, and in the Special Program on the Control of Chemicals. The Commission has additionally organized two information meetings with representatives of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), at which the comparability of test methodologies for chemicals was discussed, and the necessity of intercalibration tests to assure the quality of data was stressed.
NATO Within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( N A T O ) Science Committee, the Special Program Panel on Eco-Sciences has sponsored several scientific meetings addressing ecotoxicological subjects. For instance, in 1977, a N A T O workshop on “Ecotoxicology of Persistent Chemicals” was held at the University of Surrey, Guildford, U.K., as an Advanced Study Institutes program. This educational workshop was attended by 60 people, and lasted for four weeks. As part of the workshop, one week’s program of special interest to industry, “International Symposium on Industrial Toxicology,” was attended by an additional 50 industrial scientists. I t is anticipated that three textbook-type publications will result from this workshop. United Nations agencies Among numerous ongoing programs within the different U N agencies, relevant to the protection of human health and the non-human biota, several emphasize ecotoxicological problems. For example, in 1955, the United Nations General Assembly set up the Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNS C E A R ) to assess the environmental effects (especially on human health) of various activities-especially the detonation of nuclear bombs-releasing radioactive contaminants into the environment. This committee, still in existence, publishes substantial reports, and has pioneered in many of the basic concepts of ecotoxicology. The World Health Organization Volume 13, Number 4, April 1979
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( W H O ) Environmental Health Criteria Program assesses information on the relationship between exposure to environmental pollutants and human health, and provides guidelines for setting up exposure limits. The results are a series of environmental health criteria documents. The joint Food and Agricultural Organization/ W H O (FAO/ W HO) program on pesticide residues reviews and evaluates data on metabolism, toxicology, and pharmacology of presently close to 200 compounds (insecticides, stored product fumigants, fungicides and herbicides) and their derivatives. The aim is to estimate “no-effect” levels, and translate these into Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADI) for man; and to recommend maximum acceptable residue limits for a range of food products. Recommended levels are considered by the governments which belong to the Codex Alimentarius Commission as a basis to adopt acceptable residue limits for food products in international commerce. The Commission on Pesticides of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IU PAC) assists this program by evaluating the analytical chemical methodology for the residues. Because of the extensive use of isotropic tracer techniques in studies of pesticide residues, the joint FAO/ IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) Division of Atomic Energy in Food and Agriculture also has an ongoing training and research program designed to facilitate the use of isotopically labeled pesticides. A joint F A O / U N E P (United Nations Environment Program) project, entitled “Environmental Criteria for the Assessment of the Effects of Pollution on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,” seeks to identify problems, principles and priorities in order to protect critical biota other than man from the undesirable effects of chemical contaminants as pollutants in agriculture, fisheries, forestry and animal feed. As a first step, a review is being prepared on the problems, principles and priorities for identifying such criteria.
A toxics register An International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) was established in 1976 and forms a part of Earthwatch, the Global Environmental Assessment Program of UNEP. It is situated at the W H O headquarters in Geneva. The objectives of the IRPTC are to supply relevant information to those responsible for human health and environmental protection, and to provide basic data 414
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for evaluating the hazards from particular chemicals. Still in its earliest stages of operation, the IRPTC is developing an international network of national correspondents-nominated by their governments-willing to contribute information and data on environmentally significant chemical substances. By last October 31, forty-seven countries had designated National Correspondents. IRPTC has in its files a fast-growing collection of national and international criteria documents, monographs and dossiers on toxic effects of chemical substances, on national regulations, and on international conventions concerning the control of chemicals. IRPTC regularly obtains information on the more than 30000 chemicals listed in the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( U S . ) . Its activities are published semi-annually in a bulletin.
The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was formally established in 1975 as a part of UNEP. G E M S is responsible for the coordination of all monitoring activities within the U.N. Within the 14 projects of the Man and Biosphere (MAB) program of UNESCO, Project 9, “Ecological Assessment of Pest Management and Fertilizer Use on Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems,” and Project 14, “Research on Environmental Pollution and Its Effect on the Biosphere” address ecotoxicological subjects. Through their MAB National Committees, several countries have organized workshops related to Projects 9 and 14, or have ongoing research projects focused mainly on the effects of pesticides on soil and aquatic ecosystems. Such field projects are generally used as a basis of UNESCO’s main activities in this area-regional seminars and training courses for environmental scientists, especially in developing countries.
Non-governmental organizations As a component of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), the objective of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) is to promote interdisciplinary collaboration among various unions, and to serve as a nongovernmental source of advice on environmental problems. One of SCOPE’Scurrent projects is concerned with the toxic effects of chemicals on living organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems. Presently, in collaboration with the W H O , SCOPE plans to establish a continuous international forum with the purpose of developing internationally accepted methodologies for the safety evaluation of chemicals, both with respect to human health and to the non-human environment. This proposed group of recognized scientific experts will be limited in membership and terms of service, and will take into account geographical representation, as well as the affiliation of the experts (universities, government and industry). Meeting one or two times per year, this group will discuss, examine and develop the scientific and technical criteria of test methods used for the safety evaluation of chemicals. The International Commission for the Protection Against Environmental Mutagens and Carcinogens (ICPEMC) was founded in 1977, is affiliated with the International Association of Environmental Mutagen SOcieties and is sponsored by the lnstitut
de 1. ‘Vic. Representing a group of scientists from academia, research institutes and industry, the objective of ICPEMC is to identify and promote sciertiific studies in the fields of environmental mutagenesis, carcinogenesis and genetic toxicology. The International Academy for Environmental Safety (IAES) was established in 197I . It sponsors scientific meetings conccrned with the toxicological aspects of chemical products released into the environment. Last August, the IAES, together with SCOPE and the International Society for EcotoxicoIogy SECOTOX, organized a meeting in Vienna on the “Scientific Basis for the Ecotoxicological Assessment of Enviror.mental Chemicals.” Papers presented incIudcd studies on natural fluctuations of papulations in ecosystems, metabolism Z R fate ~ of chemicals in the cnvironment, and thc effects on human a tic! non- h uma n organ isms, including comparative and epidemiologiclri studies. Represcn ta tivcs of various inddstrles described their efforts to iisscss tcxic effects of chemical products,, and representatives of regulatory zgencies pointed out the problems with which they arc faced. A followup meeting this year will be entitled, “Quality Control of Test Methods for t he Ecotoxicological Asscssmen t of En v i ro n mc n t a I C h e m ica 1s. ”
Industry With single companies as wcll as na t iona 1 :?nd in tcrna tional indust rial associations as nicmbcrs, thc Intcrnational Center for Industry and Environmeni (ICIE, ES&‘T, February i 375, p 1 0 ) serves as a channel for w r I d industry to contribute to intcrn at i on a 1 act i v i t ies ai m cd at prot ec t i ng and improving the h u m a n cnvironmcnt. Close contacts of ;i consultritivc na:urc exist with the U.N. Environment Sccrctariat. IClE informs mcmbcrs of national and international cnvironmcntal initiatives of concern to industry. Established in 1962, the Business and hdustry Advisary Committee for OECD (f3iAC) provides industrial advice and cxpcrtisc for Lictivitics within OECD. Structured similarly as OECD, International B l A C is coinposed of national branchcs in each of the 24 OECD Member countrics. Established in 1972, the European Counci 1 of CIicmica I Mu n u factu rcrs‘ Federations (CEFIC, f3russcls, l3clgium) IS thc I‘orum and the voice of I4 n a t ioml chcmical fcdcrat ions. C EPIC opera t cs through work i n g pa r i ics o n various common problcms such as cnvironmcn tal pollution (air, watcr,
fund research projects to help increase knowledge about pollution caused by the oil industry.
wastes, and noise), and the safety of chemicals (dangerous substances, biodegradability), which provide scientific information to administrative authorities and the general public. The European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Center (ECETOC) was established last March. ECETOC‘s main aim is to present a coordinated industry view on the scientific aspects of thc ecotoxicity of chemicals. It has 38 members that help to collect all types of ccological and toxicological information on chcmicals, and organize testing programs and epidemiological studies on the effects of chemicals in order to protect the human and non-human environmcnt. The Groupcment International dcs Associations Nationales dc Fabricants dc Pcsticidcs (G!FAP) is the intcrnational trade association of the pesticide manufacturers. Founded in 1960, G I FA P now rcprcscn t s over 650 companics in cightccn countries, which produce 90% of thc pcsticidcs throughout the world. Representing the views of industry, GI FAP works closcly w i t h intcrnational agencies concerned w i t h the harmonization of nation a I a n d i n t c r na t iona I I cg i si;I ti on, thc regulation and the cnvironmentnl impact asscssmcnt of pesticides. The Oil Companies International Study Group for Conservation of Clean Air and Water in Europe (CONCAWE) was established in 1963 by a group of oil rcfining cornpanics. Today, over two dozen participants represent about 80% of the total rcfining capicity in Wcstcrn Europe. The objcctivcs of CONCAWE arc to collcct and disscminatc scientific, technical and legal information dealing with c;iuscs and cffccts of air, watcr, coastal sea and oil pollution attributable t o thc oil industry ;ind to the use of pctrolcum products. Furthcrmorc, CONCA WE ;tiins to prainotc coopcration among prticipants on cnvironnicntal issues and to dcsign and
Acknowledgments This survey would not have been possible without the generous help of many people involved in the activities described. I want, especially, to thank Dr. P. Bourdeau and Dr. J. Smeets, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium, Ms. Marietta Idman, Environment Directorate, OECD, Paris, France, Dr. M. Hotz, NATO Science Committee, Brussels, Belgium, Dr. V. Vouk, Division of Environmental Health, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, Dr. F. Mouttapa, Environment Coordinating Unit, FAO, Rome, Italy, Dr. J. Huismans, IRPTC c/o WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, Dr. L. Teller, MAB-Program, UNESCO, Paris, France, Dr. A. Bishop, Environment and Human Settlements Division. ECE, Geneva, Switzerland, Dr. P. Lohman (ICPEMC), Medical Biology Laboratory TNO, Rijswijk, The Netherlands. Dr. F. Coulston, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, USA, Dr. R. Bohon, 3M Company, St. Paul, Minn., USA, Mr. P. Daniels, US-BIAC, 1212 Ave. of the Americas, New York, USA, Dr. L. Turner, CEFIC ECETOC, 250 Ave. Louise, Brussels, elgium, Dr. Ian Samuel, GI FAP, 12 Ave. Hamoir, Brussels, Belgium, Dr. T. Levi, CONCAWE, Van Hogenhoucklaan 60,The Hague, The Netherlands and Dr. G. Butler, Division of Biological Sciences, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Unfortunately it is impossible, in this short space, to cover all international efforts in ecotoxicology. However, additional and more detailed information concerning such activities and organizationsdescribed, can be obtained from the people mentioned above, or through the Secretariat of SCOPE, 5 1 Blvd. Montmorency, Paris, France.
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Additional reading M u n n . R. E., Cain, M., SCOPE: theenvironmental voicc of world science. Enciron. Sri. Tec*hnol..11, 1056 ( 1977). Butlcr, C . C.,Ed., Priticiples of Ecotosi(*oIogy,SCOPE 12, John Wilcy and Sons, 1978.
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