Universal Selective Dispersion of Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes from Commercial Sources Using a Supramolecular Polymer Alex Chortos,† Igor Pochorovski,‡ Pei Lin,‡ Gregory Pitner,§ Xuzhou Yan,‡ Theodore Z. Gao,‡ John W. F. To,‡ Ting Lei,‡ John W. Will III,‡ H.-S. Philip Wong,§ and Zhenan Bao*,‡ †
Department of Materials Science & Engineering, ‡Department of Chemical Engineering, and §Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: Selective extraction of semiconducting carbon nanotubes is a key step in the production of high-performance, solution-processed electronics. Here, we describe the ability of a supramolecular sorting polymer to selectively disperse semiconducting carbon nanotubes from five commercial sources with diameters ranging from 0.7 to 2.2 nm. The sorting purity of the largest-diameter nanotubes (1.4 to 2.2 nm; from Tuball) was confirmed by short channel measurements to be 97.5%. Removing the sorting polymer by acidinduced disassembly increased the transistor mobility by 94 and 24% for medium-diameter and large-diameter carbon nanotubes, respectively. Among the tested single-walled nanotube sources, the highest transistor performance of 61 cm2/V· s and on/off ratio >104 were realized with arc discharge carbon nanotubes with a diameter range from 1.2 to 1.7 nm. The length and quality of nanotubes sorted from different sources is compared using measurements from atomic force microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The transistor mobility is found to correlate with the G/D ratio extracted from the Raman spectra. KEYWORDS: carbon nanotubes, CNT sorting, CNT transistor, supramolecular polymer, thin-film transistor using DNA,30 and selective dispersion using conjugated polymers.3,24,31−35 Among these methods, conjugated polymer dispersion has advantages of high-throughput, high yield, and potentially low cost.33 However, one challenge associated with conjugated polymer sorting is that residual polymer in the SWNT network after deposition can increase the tunneling barrier between SWNTs, thereby impeding charge transport and reducing the charge mobility.32,36−39 Considerable effort has been directed toward the development of polymers and small molecules that can be removed from dispersed SWNTs based on various strategies, including conformational switching of polymers,26,40 degradation of covalent polymers,32,37 and disassembly of supramolecular polymers.41−43 In addition to the increase in performance, the release process can reduce the costs of s-SWNT sorting, which is a key consideration for large-area applications such as solar
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ingle-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have a number of attractive properties for thin-film electronics, including high charge mobility, large surface area, and compatibility with solution-processing methods.1−8 These characteristics make them uniquely suitable for a number of applications, such as large-area flexible8−10 and stretchable11−14 thin-film transistors (TFT), photovoltaics,15−17 chemical sensors,18 and IR photodetectors.19−22 They are particularly advantageous for intrinsically stretchable devices because their large aspect ratio enables good stretchability of a SWNT network,11,23 and their high modulus ensures good durability.12,13 Most of these applications require SWNTs to be semiconducting. However, high-throughput processes for synthesizing large quantities of SWNTs typically produce a mixture of ∼2/3 semiconducting SWNTs (s-SWNTs) and 1/3 metallic SWNTs (m-SWNTs), as well as contaminants such as amorphous carbon and residual catalyst.24−26 Consequently, the purification of s-SWNTs is a critical step in the development of SWNT electronics. Methods for s-SWNT isolation have included density gradient centrifugation,27,28 gel chromatography,29 selective dispersion © 2017 American Chemical Society
Received: February 15, 2017 Accepted: May 21, 2017 Published: May 21, 2017 5660
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ACS Nano cells and thin-film transistors. With the availability of new, lowcost sources of SWNTs, the sorting polymer now represents a large proportion of the cost in the sorting process.32 Recently, we have introduced a hydrogen-bond-based supramolecular polymer 1 that can selectively disperse s-SWNTs and release them upon triggering disassembly into monomer units via addition of a H-bond-disrupting agent (trifluoroacetic acid, TFA).41 An important benefit of polymer 1 is that, in addition to being removed from the dispersed s-SWNTs, it can also be released from the nondispersed SWNTs. The ability to reisolate and reuse polymer 1 for future s-SWNT dispersions can lead to a significant reduction in s-SWNT production costs. After degradation, the polymer can reassemble by removing the Hbond-disrupting agent. This simple recycling process has the advantage that a repolymerization step is not required. In this work, we have studied the ability of supramolecular polymer 1 to selectively disperse s-SWNT from SWNT sources with different diameter distributions. Different diameters of SWNTs are suitable for different applications. For example, in SWNT photovoltaics, smaller-diameter SWNTs (104. Devices fabricated with Tuball SWNTs exhibit a trade-off between μ and R that is substantially less favorable than transistors fabricated with either PD or AD nanotubes. As the SWNT density in the transistor channel is a key consideration for device performance, Figure 4b−d compares the transfer characteristics for AD and Tuball devices at similar SWNT density. The linear density for the AD and Tuball devices were 21.5 ± 1.8 and 18.7 ± 2.5 SWNT/μm, respectively. Despite the similar SWNT density, the μ and R for the Tuball device were relatively poor compared to that of AD. The low R is consistent with the theoretical on/off ratio for transistors with a band gap of 0.40 eV46 (i.e., 3 orders of magnitude), which corresponds to the band gap of the largest-diameter Tuball SWNTs. Semiconductor purity is important for many of the applications in which SWNTs are used, such as optoelectronics,49,83 thermoelectrics,62 and TFTs.72 Shorter channel devices are more sensitive to the purity of s-SWNTs because m5664
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semiconducting behavior, whereas 17 exhibited metallic behavior (Figure 5c). Using an assumption of sparsity and an average number of bridging SWNTs per device of 11, we estimate a s-SWNT purity of 97.5% (Supplementary Note 4 and Table S3). Sorting larger-diameter SWNTs is typically considered to be more challenging due to smaller differences in the band structure and polarizability of the s-SWNT and mSWNT.67 However, with further optimization of the polymer chemistry, it may be possible to isolate large-diameter sSWNTs with high purity. For very large diameter CNTs, it may be possible to produce double-walled CNTs during the fabrication process, which could behave as metallic CNTs and impair the on/off ratio. To summarize the characteristics of SWNTs from different commercial sources, Figure 6 compares the mobility of the different SWNT sources with the structural characteristics of
SWNTs can more easily form percolating pathways across short channels, reducing the on/off ratio.72 The purity of all SWNT sources sorted with polymer 1 is sufficient to produce transistors with 5 μm channel lengths that have reasonable on/off ratios (Figure 5a). The measurements were collected in
Figure 5. (a) Transistor transfer curves for devices with 5 μm channel lengths and 100 μm channel widths. The devices were measured in N2 environment. (b) Example SEM image of a 300 nm channel with Tuball SWNT as the semiconductor. SEM was used to count the number of SWNTs per channel. (c) Transfer curves for transistors with channel lengths of 300 nm using Tuball semiconductors. The devices were measured under active vacuum with a VDS of −0.5 V.
N2 atmosphere to reduce p-type doping, which was important to enable good on/off ratios. The on/off ratios of devices prepared with CoMoCat, HiPCO, and AD SWNTs were ∼105. The output curves for all devices indicate that contact resistance (RC) significantly affects these short channel devices (Figure S10). The on/off ratio of 5 μm channel devices with Tuball SWNTs was 497 ± 147. To provide a quantitative estimate of the sorting purity for Tuball SWNTs, devices were fabricated with ∼300 nm channel lengths using sparsely deposited nanotubes. Out of 61 functional devices, 44 showed
Figure 6. Mobility plotted as a function of (a) band gap, (b) average SWNT length, and (c) Raman G/D ratio. The mobility is defined as the highest mobility achieved with an on/off ratio >103. 5665
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CONCLUSIONS A supramolecular polymer was used to sort SWNTs from different sources that include SWNT diameters ranging from 0.7 to 2.2 nm. SWNTs with a diameter from 1.0 to 1.5 nm exhibited the highest sorting yield, as measured by optical absorption. The sorting purity for large-diameter Tuball SWNTs was found to be 97.5% by short channel measurements. The polymer could be removed to increase the mobility of the SWNT transistors by 94 and 24% for medium-diameter HiPCO SWNTs and large-diameter AD SWNTs, respectively. The SWNT lengths and defect densities were measured by AFM and Raman spectroscopy. The mobilities and on/off ratios were measured for devices from different SWNT sources, and AD SWNT exhibited the best performance, with mobilities of 61 cm2/V·s and on/off ratio of ∼104. The transistor performance was strongly correlated with both the band gap and the G/D ratios of the SWNT sources. The transistor behavior of large-diameter Tuball SWNTs suggest that it may be valuable to investigate the role of defects on charge transport behavior.
the SWNTs, including the band gap, average length, and G/D ratio. The four SWNT sources with the largest band gaps (smallest diameters) show the expected increase in mobility with decreasing band gap. This is expected to have several contributing factors: as the average band gap of the SWNTs increases, fewer charge carriers are thermally generated,46 and the variation in the band gaps of individual SWNT increases, resulting in larger barriers for tunneling between SWNTs of different chiralities.84 However, Tuball SWNTs do not follow the expected trend and exhibit low mobility values. For single SWNT devices, the μ should increase quadratically with the band gap.85 However, for network devices, μ is determined by the SWNT junction resistance, which has a complex dependence on the SWNT diameter. Variations in SWNT band gap within a network causes barriers to charge hopping,59,84,86 but these variations are usually small enough for large-diameter SWNTs that they should have a minimal effect on the charge transport.84 For example, the two most common chiralities in CoMoCat SWNTs are (6,5) and (7,5) SWNTs, which have band gaps of 1.270 and 1.211 eV.87 In comparison, three common chiralities of AD SWNT are (15,4), (12.7), and (11,7),41 which have band gaps of 0.780, 0.803, and 0.820 eV.87 Consequently, the energetic barrier between (15,4) and (12,7) SWNTs (0.803−0.780)/2 is ∼0.0115 eV, which is smaller than thermal energy (kT = 0.025 eV) at room temperature. However, SWNTs with larger diameters are expected to have larger junction resistance because of the larger diameter over which the nanotube conduction pathways are spread.63 Therefore, there may be an ideal SWNT diameter that optimizes this trade-off between the band gap variation and diameter-dependent junction resistance. In addition, the large number of defects in Tuball SWNTs, as indicated by the small G/D ratio, may limit the device performance. An exponential curve fitted to the band gap versus diameter plot (Figure 6a) (excluding Tuball) yields a relationship of μ = 7656e−9.43·Eg. Of the three parameters in Figure 6, the G/D ratio shows the most consistent correlation with mobility. An empirical fit to data shows a relationship of μ = 1.303e0.076·G/D. Although this work did not explore enough SWNT sources to find a conclusive correlation between G/D ratio and transistor performance, the results suggest that further experiments into the influence of defects and contaminants on device performance may be valuable. Work by Saito and co-workers73 rigorously investigated the effect of SWNT diameter on device performance using the same SWNT source and average length. However, their mobilities were 1−2 orders of magnitude lower than that in the state-of-the-art work,34,35,61,62 suggesting that their device performance was limited by factors other than those described here, such as the bulky DNA sorting molecules. Furthermore, they used unsorted (∼30% metallic) SWNTs, which limits the density of SWNTs that can be used. The diameter of SWNTs is expected to have a large influence on the contact resistance.47 However, the contact resistance is also strongly influenced by the sorting purity.72 Consequently, it is difficult to correlate the magnitude of the contact resistance with the diameter of the SWNTs in this work because the sorting purity varies enough (∼99% for PD and AD to ∼97.5% for Tuball) that it is not possible to decouple the effects of the SWNT band gap and SWNT sorting purity on the contact resistance.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION SWNT Dispersion. CoMoCat SWNTs were obtained from SigmaAldrich (SG65). HiPCO SWNTs were obtained from Unidym (now distributed by Nanointegris; product: HiPCO purified). Plasma discharge SWNTs were obtained from Nanointegris (RN-220). Arc discharge SWNTs were obtained from Carbon Solutions (P2-SWNT). Tuball SWNTs were obtained from the Tuball company. Supramolecular polymer 1 was synthesized according to a previously published procedure.41 First, 10 mg of polymer and 5 mg of carbon nanotubes were combined with 20 mL of toluene. The mixture was sonicated using a 750 W Cole Parmer ultrasonicator. SWNT dispersions were prepared at 30% sonication power except for the data in Figure 2a,b, which was prepared at 70% sonication power. During sonication, the sample was cooled in a circulating water bath at room temperature. The samples were subsequently centrifuged at 17 000 rpm (22 000g) for 45 min at 18 °C, and the supernatant was retained for testing. Vis−NIR measurements were collected using a Cary 6000i spectrophotometer (Varian). AFM measurements were collected using a Nanoscope IV microscope, and the measurements were done in ambient conditions using tapping mode. Device Fabrication. Ti/Pd electrodes (2/30 nm) were patterned using evaporation and liftoff using photolithography. The wafer was then broken into chips ∼1 cm × 1 cm, and the edges of the chip were coated with decyltrimethoxysilane using a vapor-phase deposition approach. The silane acted as a nonstick region that prevented the SWNT semiconductor from coming in contact with the Si back gate of the chip. The semiconductor was deposited by spin-coating at 2000 rpm while dropping solution onto the chip. Devices were annealed at 180 °C for 20 min. A solution of 1% TFA in toluene was dropped onto the chip for 30 s followed by spin-coating at 2000 rpm for 30 s. The sample was then rinsed by dropping toluene onto the chip for 30 s followed by spin-coating at 2000 rpm for 30 s. The devices were vacuum annealed at −70 psi and 160 °C for 3 h to remove any residual TFA that can dope the SWNT network and to improve the adhesion of the SWNTs to the SiO2 dielectric. Device Characterization. Electrical characteristics were collected using a Keithley 4200. Data for Figures 3 and 5 were collected in ambient conditions, whereas data for Figure 6 were collected after annealing at 160 °C in N2 for 2 h to remove adsorbed water. AFM images were collected using a Veeco AFM in tapping mode. Raman spectra were collected using a WiTec micro-Raman spectrometer with 532 nm laser. Transmission electron microscopy was performed at 80 kV using a FEI Titan equipped with a spherical aberration (Cs) corrector in the image-forming (objective) lens. The Cs coefficient was set to approximately 10 mm. The images were acquired using an Ultrascan 1000 CCD camera. 5666
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT S Supporting Information *
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b01076. Figures S1−S11, Tables S1 and S2, and Supplementary Notes 1−4 (PDF)
AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. ORCID
Alex Chortos: 0000-0003-3976-5257 Pei Lin: 0000-0002-3300-5241 Xuzhou Yan: 0000-0002-6114-5743 Ting Lei: 0000-0001-8190-9483 Zhenan Bao: 0000-0002-0972-1715 Author Contributions
A.C. and I.P. contributed equally to this work. I.P. and X.Y. synthesized the sorting polymer. I.P. and P.L. optimized the polymer release process. A.C. fabricated transistor devices, and A.C. and J.W. characterized them. G.P. fabricated and tested short channel devices for sorting purity estimation. J.W.-F.T. and T.L. assisted with TEM and Raman measurements. A.C., I.P., and Z.B. wrote the manuscript. All authors revised the manuscript. Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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