(261) C. Guimon, M. Guimon, and G. Pfesterg, Tetrahedron Lett., 1413 (1975). (262) A. Schwelg, U. Werdner, and G. Manuel, J. Organornet. Chem.. 67, 4 (1974). (263) J. Berkowitz, M. Swarc, K. Shumada, and J. Dehmer. J. .Electron. Spectrosc. Relat. Phenorn., 3, 164 (1974). (264) R. Guebel, F. Dorr, and G. Hohlnerc, J. Electron. Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom.. 4, 185 (1974). (265) T. Bally and E. Haselbach. Helv. Chim. Acta, 58, 321 (1975). (266) A. Flameni, G. Condorel. and E. Lempreni, Chem. Phys. Len., 32, 365 (1975). (267) L. Szepes, S. Pegnatar, and G. DeStenfan, Ann. Chim. (Rome), 64, 159 (1974). (268) S.Pegnatar, G. Destefan, and A. Modelli, Ann. Chim. (Rome), 64, 139 (1974). (269) T. Evlashev, E. Guryanov, U. Puchkova. and V. Potapov, Zhur. Fiz. Khim.. 49, 773 (1975). (270) T. Fehlner, Inorg. Chem., 14, 934 (1975). (271) D. Battiste, R. Nauman, and L. Davis, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 97,5071 (1975). (272) N. Jonathan, A. Morris, M. Okuda, K. J. Ross, and D. J. Smith, J. Chem. SOC., Faraday
Trans. 2, 70, 1810 (1974). (273) J. M. Dyke, L. Golob. N. Jonathan, A. Morris, M. Okuda. and D. J. Smith, J. Chem. SOC., Faraday Trans. 2, 70, 1818 (1974). (274) J. M. Dyke, L. Golob, N. Jonathan, A. Morris and M. Okuda, J. Chem. SOC., Faraday Trans. 2, 70, 1828 (1974). (275) J. M. Dyke, L. Golob, N. Jonathan, and A. Morris, J. Chem. SOC., Faraday Trans. 2, 71, 1026 (1975). (276) L. Golob, N. Jonathan, A. Morris, M. Okuda, and K. J. Ross, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 1, 506 (1973). (277) D. W. Davis, R. L. Martin, M. S. Banna, and D. A. Shirley, J. Chem. Phys., 59, 4235 (1973). (278) D. R. Yarkony and H. F. Schaeffer, Chem. Phys. Lett., 35, 291 (1975). (279) D. A. Mosher, W. M. Flicker, and A. Kuppermann. J. Chem. Phys., 62, 2600 (1975). (280) W. C. Tam and C. E. Brion, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 3, 467 (1974). (281) W. C. Tam and C. E. Brion, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 4, 139 (1974). (282) W. C. Tam and C. E. Brion, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 4, 263 (1974).
(283) W. C. Tam and C. E. Brion, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 4, 159 (1974). (284) L. Sanche and G. J. Schulz. J. Chem. Phys. 56, 479 (1973). (285) I. Nenner and G. J. Schulz, J. Chem. Phys., 62, 1747 (1975). (286) J. P. Zeisel, I. Nenner, and G. J. Schulz, J. Chem. Phys., 63, 1943 (1975). (287) N. Swanson, R. J. Celotta, C. E. Kuyatt, and J. W. Cooper, J. Chem. Phys., 62, 4880 (1975). (288) D. C. Locke and J. Schmermund. Anal. Len., 8, 611 (1975). (289) H.Siegbahn and K. Siegbahn. J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 2, 319 (1973). (290) H. Siegbahn. L. Asplund, P. Kelfue, K. Hamrin, L. Karlsson, and K. Siegbahn, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom.,5, 1059 (1974). (291) H. Siegbahn, L. Asplund, P. Kelfue and K. Siegbahn, J. Electron Spectrosc. Re&. Phenom., 7, 411 (1975). (292) H. Fellner-Feldegg, H. Siegbahn, L. Asplund, P. Kelfue and K. Siegbahn, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 7, 421 (1975). (293) L. Nemec, L. Chia. and P. Delahay, J. Phys. Chem., 79, 2935 (1975).
Electron Spectroscopy: X-ray and Electron Excitation David M. Hercules Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens,
Ga.30602
The present review is for the fields of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ESCA) and Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) for the period of 1974-75; it is the third review of these topics in Analytical Chemistry ( I , 2 ) . This review will cover literature abstracted in Chemical Abstracts starting with the December 23, 1973, issue through December 25, 1975, issue no. 25. The reviews of ESCA and AES will be in separate sections for convenience of reference. The editors of Analytical Chemistry have suggested that this be a critical review, rather than all-inclusive. However, ESCA is a young and rapidly growing field, 545 articles were abstracted in the last review and 630 in this one. The period of the present review has seen ESCA become established as a field; there are many fundamental studies being reported and applications of ESCA to a variety of problems have appeared. In such a rapidly growing area, it is difficult t o be selective because of the diversity of interests on the part of readers. Therefore, I will try to cover most of the published literature on ESCA and selected literature on Auger spectroscopy. This review will not include theses, government reports, patents, or articles published in obscure foreign language journals. During the present review period, the second international conference on electron spectroscopy was held a t Namur, Belgium. The proceedings of this conference have been reported as a book (3) and as volume 5 of the Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena. The first Gordon Research Conference on Electron Spectroscopy was held in 1974 and another is planned for 1976. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Committee on Molecular Structure and Spectroscopy has published recommendations for nomenclature and spectral presentation ( 4 ) . During the period covered by this review several books have appeared, either devoted to electron spectroscopy or to related phenomena. Ertl and Kuppers have published a monograph entitled “Low Energy Electrons and Surface Chemistry” ( 5 ) ; Jorgensen has published a book “Photoelectron Spectra Induced by X-rays of Over 600 Non-Metallic Compounds Containing 77 Elements” (6); Nefedov has written a book in Russian (7) and Kane and Larrabee 294R
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have chapters in their book “Characterization of Solid Surfaces” dealing both with ESCA and Auger spectroscopy (8). 1 should like to make some comment about the format of the review. The last two reviews have been written only with major subheadings and in a normal journal prose style. My experience, and that of my students, has been that this format often makes it difficult to find a specific article, or articles on a specific topic. Therefore, in the present review I have tried to use a more extensive outline, with a larger group of subheadings. I would appreciate feedback on this format. One barometer that ESCA is maturing as a field is the large number of review articles that have appeared in the past two years. In combing the literature, I counted no less than 105 review articles either on ESCA, some aspect of ESCA, or the application of ESCA to some area. In tabulating these reviews, I have selected only those published in English and only those either of general interest or of specific interest to analytical chemists. The more general review articles will be tabulated here, but review articles will also be treated in separate subsections where appropriate. Several plenary lectures from the Namur Conference make good review articles of various aspects of ESCA. Seigbahn’s article on outlook (9) provides a broad perspective of the field. Other articles deal with correlations with chemical and physical data ( I O ) , correlations between NMR and ESCA (111, multiplet structure (12), adsorption and surface reactions ( 1 3 ) , applications to industrial chemistry ( 1 4 ) ,theoretical models (Is),new developments in instrumentation (16),and applications to chemical analysis ( 17). Other interesting reviews have appeared on chemical aspects of ESCA (18); the Society of Analytical Chemistry has two short reviews in the Analyst (London), (19,ZO), relaxation effects are discussed @ I ) , and an excellent review has appeared on the applications of electron spectroscopy to analytical chemistry (22).
THEORY In this section I will cover only those articles where the intent of the article is some contribution to theory. This
David M. Hercules is professor of chemistry at the University of Georgia, He earned his B.S. degree from Juniata College in 1954 and his Ph.D. from MI1 in 1957. After serving on the faculties at Lehigh University, Juniata, and MIT, he joined the faculty at Georgia in 1969. Dr. Hercules’ research interests include trace analysis by fluorescence and phosphorescence, relationships between luminescence and molecular structure, chemiluminescence, electroluminescence, the chemistry of molecules in electronically exclted states, and electron spectroscopy. He is a member of the ACS, AAAS, SAS, the Pennsylvania Academy of Sciences, the Photoelectronic Spectrometry Group, and Sigma Xi. He has been on the advisory boards of ANALYTICALCHEMISTRY and Applied Spectroscopy and is currently on the editorial boards of Journal of Electron Spectroscopy, Spectrochirnica Acta, the lnternatlonal Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, and Talanta. He was chairman of the 1966 Gordon Conference on Analytical Chemistry and the 1974 Gordon Conference on ESCA.
will be something like development of new theoretical models, general explanation of chemical shifts, line widths, etc. I will not include here routine correlations between binding energy and chemical shifts; these will be contained under the organic and inorganic sections. Calculations of Chemical Shifts. General discussions of the calculation of chemical shifts have appeared including a comprehensive account of the theory of binding energies ( 2 3 ) , the correlation of core binding energies with a model based on half-ionized cores (24),and the use of several potential models for small molecules (25). Extra atomic relaxation is an important effect in the interpretation of electron spectra. Evidence for extra atomic relaxation was obtained by measurements on clean metallic zinc, and the magnitude of the extra atomic relaxation energy was estimated by several different techniques (26). The change in relaxation energy as a function of substituent was studied for a number of molecules (27). Relaxation effects on ESCA chemical shifts by using a transition potential model were reported (28). The equivalent cores method of analyzing ESCA chemical shifts was used for fluorine containing compounds (29) and a number of small molecules (30). Numerous investigators have studied the application of a variety of quantum methods to estimatin chemical shifts; Hartree-Fock methods (31,32),LCAO-SEF-MO methods, (33-35), CNDO, (36), INDO (37), and MIND0/3 (38) ab initio methods (39-41 ), and the multiple scattering x-alpha method ( 4 2 ) . Electronegativity methods have also been used. An electronegativity equilization procedure has been outlined (43) and the use of Pauling electronegativities for the calculation of bond ionicity and charge in relation to ESCA measurements has been discussed (44). A point charge model has been developed to calculate partial atomic charges in crystals using ESCA data (45). Thermal shifts in ESCA binding energies have been explained on the basis of expansion using a simple point charge model ( 4 6 ) . Different methods have been explored for calculating ESCA binding energies. The Green’s function method was used to evaluate excitation energies for photoionization ( 4 7 ) ;use of discontinuous trial functions for calculations of small molecules has been attempted ( 4 8 ) ; and a simple model including the effects of energy loss and multiple scattering for calculation of ESCA and Auger processes has been reported (49). Intensity Calculations. Slater-type orbitals and the plane wave approximation have been used for theoretical studies of atomic sub-shell cross section calculations in ESCA (50).A similar approach has also been used for cross sections, photoionization intensities, and angular distributions ( 5 1 ) . An intensity model has been reported for the same approach and has been applied to small molecules ( 5 2 ) , as well as to the isoelectronic series of Ne, HF, H20, “3, and CHI (53). Other studies have included the use of angular distribu-
tion data to calculate differential cross sections (54), the effect of including multielectron transitions in the sudden approximation (55), and a new intensity model which permits simple rules for correlating angular dependence with molecular orbital structure (56). There has also been interest in the measurement of relative sub-shell photoionization cross sections and their interpretation. This has been done for NaCl and NaF (57) as well as Ne, Kr, Ar, and Xe (58). Correlations with Chemical Data. The correlation of ESCA chemical shifts with chemical data is an intriguing development. Gas phase binding energy shifts were correlated with proton affinities and Lewis basicities for simple alcohols (59), carboxylic acids (EO), and carbonyl compounds (61).A potential energy model has been developed for calculatin proton affinities and relating them to inner shell electron inding energies (62). Another interesting development is evidence for hyperconjugation derived from ESCA chemical shifts of gaseous compounds (63). Line Shapes. Line Widths. A number of factors can be responsible for line widths in ESCA. As an example, vibration and life time broadening have been investigated as a cause for line broadening (64). Phonon broadening has been implicated as an important factor in the width of ESCA emission lines (65-67). In the case of Sn 3d line widths, electric field gradient broadening seems to be the major factor (68). Line Shapes. Line shape asymmetries have been interpreted as arising from the coupling of the core hole to the conduction electrons for a number of metals (69-71). Line shapes for 2s and 2p electrons have been interpreted in terms of the Mahan-Nozieres-De Dominicis theory (72), and indications are this theory is generally valid for such interpretations (73, 74). The large asymmetries found in core lines for transition metals indicate enhanced hole-electron scattering produced by the s-d interaction (75, 76). Spin Orbit Splitting. The use of monochromatic x-radiation has allowed correlation between calculated and measured 2p spin orbit splitting (77). Crystal field effects on the spin orbit splitting of core and valence electrons has also been investigated by ESCA (78). Other Studies. Correlation of vibrational broadening of core lines with valence bond structures has been reported (79). Plasmon effects have been observed in the ESCA spectra of graphite and interpreted theoretically ( 8 0 ) ; a theoretical treatment has been applied to ESCA spectra of core electrons in metals with an incomplete shell (81). Miscellaneous. Electron shake off probabilities have been calculated based on relativistic Hartree-Fock-Slater wave functions (82). Correlations have been observed between ESCA chemical shifts and soft x-ray spectra and interpreted using MO calculations ( 8 3 ) ;similarly interpretation of the ESCA and x-ray emission spectra of orthorhombic sulfur has been reported (84). A combination of x-ray and ESCA spectra can yield valuable theoretical information (85) and such data have been reported for the 2p electrons of iron and nickel (86).
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PRACTICE OF ESCA Calibration and Reference. Calibration of ESCA spectra is very important and an extensive discussion of calibration and other factors affecting ESCA measurements has been given (87). Some very accurate 1 s ionization potentials have been reported (88). Vacuum deposition of gold is the “primary standard” for ESCA. Various workers have questioned the universal applicability of this standard because of its chemical reactivity with inorganic solids (89), surface coverage problems with polymers ( g o ) , interactions with phosphorus compounds (91), and variations with quantity of gold deposited (92). Work function measurements have been performed for a variety of metals and suggest an alternative method for calibrating spectrometers (93). The Fermi Level of a conducting sample has been proposed as a reference level in ESCA (94) and the importance of secondary electron emission on the detection of vacuum level has been pointed out (95).Other workers ( 9 6 )have studied the use of the carbon 1s line as a standard. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5, APRIL 1976
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Sample Charging. Sample charging is still the “bhte noir” of electron spectroscopy. It has been shown that three factors determine the charging of a sample surface (97): electron emission from the sample, electrons impinging on a sample from x-rays, and electron conduction along the sample surface. Workers have conducted experiments on sample charging to validate this mechanism (98). It has been shown that, in unbiased samples, differential sample charging contributes significantly to peak widths (99). Conductive particles on low conductivity substrates have been studied (100, 101 ). Correction procedures for sample charging have been suggested (102). The effect of biasing nonconductive solids in ESCA has been studied (103). Escape Depths. Workers have measured the important parameter of escape depth for a variety of solids. Those measured during the course of this review are Si (104), Si02 (105), Hg adsorbed on platinum black (106), A1203 (107), and Ag and graphite (108). Inelastic effects and their influence on escape depths have been reviewed (109). Deconvolution. Deconvolution is an important parameter in the analysis of ESCA spectra, particularly to remove the effect of x-ray satellites from spectra or to resolve overlapping spectra from different oxidation states. The use of deconvolution has been discussed from the standpoint of general applicability (110) as well as criticisms of deconvolution techniques ( I 11 ). Deconvolution techniques have been applied to the analysis of the conduction band of gold (112,113). Sample Handling. Handling ESCA samples in any physical form other than a solid can cause problems. Recent progress in the study of gases has been reviewed (114) and instrumentation for high intensity, high resolution ESCA spectra of gases has been described ( 1 1 5 ) . Apparatus has also been described for obtaining high temperature photoelectron spectra (116) employing a laser beam heated sample oven. A technique for handling powdered samples on folded indium strips has been reported (117). Application of ESCA to liquids has always been difficult although this has been accomplished. The conditions for applying ESCA to liquid samples have been discussed (118), and this technique has been applied to recording of valence and core electron spectra of formamide (119).Another approach for the study of liquids has been to use Quick frozen solutions (120) or a solution evaporation method (121). Miscellaneous. A number of miscellaneous items for the practice of ESCA have been reported. A fracture device for use in an electron spectrometer has been described (122)as well as a mechanical grinding device (123). A perennial problem is decomposition of samples in the x-ray beam and two examples of this have been reported (124,125). INSTRUMENTATION Spectrometer Characteristics. The most important part of an electron spectrometer is the energy analyzer and design principles for analyzers have been reviewed (126).A treatment has also been presented on the maximum, attainable resolution and transmission of an electron spectrometer, independent of its configuration (127). Workers have also studied the improvement of electron optics and their effect on quantitative electron spectroscopic measurements (128).The transmission properties of spherical electrostatic electron spectrometers have been analyzed (129). The importance of spurious background peaks in electron spectrometers has been investigated and background can be reduced by a factor of 10 with appropriate deflection plates (130). Specific Spectrometers. A number of specific spectrometers have been reported which should be useful for particular types of research. For example three spectrometers have been designed for surface research in ultrahigh vacuum (131-133). A high resolution instrument with an x-ray monochromator applicable to gases and solids has also been designed (134).A double focusing magnetic spectrometer for the range of 0.1 to 10 keV has been developed (135). An instrument which can do both ESCA and x-ray fluorescence measurements has been constructed; operation can be changed from one mode to the other without changing the sample (136). Another combined instrument 296R
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features the combined use of ESCA and Auger spectroscopy so that both types of measurements can be performed on a single sample (137, 138). A spectrometer has been developed for measuring both angular and energy distributions of photoemitted electrons (139). Current voltage characteristics have been measured for an electrostatic spectrometer using both conducting and insulating samples (140). Spectrometer Accessories. A number of accessories have been reported for electron spectrometers, making them more versatile. A rotatable gas-tight collision chamber has been reported (141).In order to improve resolution a very narrow x-ray beam has been designed for an x-ray monochromator by two sets of workers (142,143).The sensitivity of electron spectroscopy has been increased by a factor of 100 to 1000 by modulating the intensity of the primary beam instead of the analyzer potential (144).A position sensitive detector has been reported (145)and an alloy anode has been designed to permit the use of both magnesium and aluminum radiation (146). Measurements have been reported using the Mlline of Y (147)and an improvement in the characteristics of an electron spectrometer using a triplet of quadrupole-octapole lenses has been discussed (148). Synchrotron Radiation. One of the most intriguing developments in ESCA is the use of synchrotron radiation as an x-ray source. A spectrometer using synchrotron radiation has been tested (149) at the Stanford accelerator and the NINA spectrometer has been used to obtain photoelectron spectra of nitrogen (150). Monochromatization of the synchrotron radiation has been studied (151) and a timeof-flight technique for using synchrotron radiation has been developed (152,153). Detection of Soft X-ray Spectra. An electron spectrometer has been used as a detector for soft X-ray spectra (154). SATELLITE LINES Interpretation of the origin of satellite lines and plasmon peaks in electron spectroscopy has occupied a number of workers. The sudden approximation has been utilized to Dredict the origins and relative intensities of fine structure bf many ESCA-peaks (155). Multiplet Splitting. Multiplet splitting in ESCA spectra of organic sDecies has been the subiect of three DaDers. MultiplG splitiing in the Is holes of *paramagnet& ;olecules for C, N, 0, and F 1 s electrons have been reported (156). Anomalous multiplet splitting ratios in NO and 0 2 have been studied (157) as has multiplet splitting in trimethylenemethane radicals (158).ESCA measurements in the multiplet splittings of the 4s and 5s levels of the rare earths have been carried out (159) and hyperfine interactions in ESCA data have been studied (160). Splitting of the 3s core levels in the ESCA spectra of transition metal compounds have been correlated with increasing covalency of the metal ligand bond (161). Multiplet splitting of mixed nickel-, iron-, and chromium oxide spinels and the relationship to magnetic hyperfine fields have been studied (162). High resolution ESCA spectra have revealed multiplet splitting for core levels of the 3d transition series and the rare earths (163);the spin state of manganese in monolayer films of manganese arachidate has been determined (164). Satellite structure has been measured for four iron compounds and correlated with location of the inner shell vacancy in iron (165). S h a k e - u p . A lot of work has been done in the present two-year period on shake-up satellites in ESCA. An excellent review of these effects has appeared (166). Shake-up satellites have been observed for a number of transition metal compounds: Sc and Ti (167),3d transition metal compounds (168), Ti compounds (169), Mn (+2) compounds (170), Ni and Cu compounds, (171), Cu (+2) complexes (172),Co (+2) oxide (173).Selection rules have been tabulated for the shake-up transitions in transition metal compounds (I 74). Satellite structure has been studied in the ESCA spectra of rare gases and alkali metal halides ( I 75), potassium bromide (1761, and lanthanium and cerium halides (177).Charge transfer shake-ups have been observed as satellites in the ESCA spectra of strontium ti-
tanate (178). In addition to inorganic compounds, satellite peaks have been observed in the photoelectron spectra of small molecules: CH4, HzO, H2, "3, 0 2 , CO, and COz (179), and, in another study, CO, HzO, and NH3 (180). Formaldehyde has been studied (181) along with satellite peaks in NO, N20, and Hz0 (182). Satellite bands have been correlated with the valence ionic states of ozone (183) and the satellite bands in formaldehyde were calculated using SCF theory (184). Theoretical studies were also done on the satellites of HzO,Nz, CO, C302, and nickel carbonyl (185) and formaldehyde (186). In addition to small molecules, multiband ESCA peaks were observed for substituted benzene and heterocyclic compounds (187) and for a series of monosubstituted benzenes (188). Plasmons. Energy loss peaks for nine metals have been studied, along with their systematic variations (189). When metal films are covered with A1 coatings, the photoelectrons from the substrates do not exhibit the characteristic loss peaks of the pure metals (190). Surface plasmon satellites from the core states of adsorbed atoms have been reported (191). The plasmon structure for several metals has been interpreted using a model of random spatial emissions (192).
Miscellaneous. A correlation between chemical bonding and satellite lines in the ESCA spectra of transition metal compounds has been reported (193). X-ray emission spectroscopy has been used to distinguish between single- and multielectron processes in ESCA spectra (194). VALENCE ELECTRON SPECTRA Metals. Of interest in electron spectroscopy has been the valence band structure of metals, particularly determination of the density of electron states. The valence band spectra were obtained for sodium and lithium; plasmon structures were observed (195). Two groups have studied x-ray photoemission from sodium metal and sodium hydroxide (196, 197). Many body effects have been reported in the ESCA and Auger spectra of magnesium (198). A number of studies have been carried out on transition metals including Cu (199), Ni (200, 201), and Fe (202). Other studies include high resolution valence band spectra of noble metals (203),a study of the participation of the 3d electrons of Cu, Zn, and Ga in bonding (204), and a study of integrated intensity measurements for Cu, Ag, and Au (205). Valence band spectra of Cu, Ni, Ag, and some of their alloys have been reported (206) as well as the transition probability effect on the shape of the electron energy distribution for Cu, Ag, and Pd (207). Band structures for vacuum deposited palladium films were measured (208), and the valence band spectra of Rh, Pd, Ag, Ir, Pt, and Au were compared with density of state calculations (209). ESCA spectra were applied to the study of the valence states of the complete lanthanide series (210); high resolution spectra of the rare earths showed complicated structure due to multiplet splitting (211). The ESCA spectra of Yb and Lu have been re-investigated and the energies of the 5s, 5p, 4s, and 4p levels identified (212). ESCA spectra of Gd, Tb, and Df 4f levels in valence bands have been obtained under high vacuum conditions (213). In other studies of metals, the allotropes of elemental tin have been investigated (214) and LCAO studies showed that crystal field effects were responsible for splittings of the 6p states of P b (215). Amorphous and rhombohedral antimony showed spectra consisting of two bands, mainly due to the 5p and 5s electrons with only slight differences in shape between the two (216). Effect of oxidation on the valence bands of T h and U have been investigated (217) and the structures of the light actinides, Th, U, and their dioxides reported (218). Alloys. The d states of Au, alloyed with Pt, Cu, and Ni have been studied (219) as well as the ESCA spectra of gold-silver alloys (220). The asymmetry of Pt 4f and Ni 2p levels disappeared when these metals were alloyed with gold (221). Density of states for the valence band of Ni-Cu alloys were calculated and agreed well with ESCA measurements
(222). Band structure calculations for Cu-Ni, and Ag-Pd also agreed with ESCA spectra (223). The valence band spectra showed that in Cu-Zn alloys the copper 3d band shifts toward the Fermi level as it is diluted with zinc (224). With increasing Mn content, the valence electron state density at the Fermi level increases in Cu-Mn alloys (225). Alloys of rare. earths have been studied. ESCA studies of rare earth metals and alloys revealed different 5d contributions to valence bands (226). Both soft x-ray emission and electron spectroscopy have been applied to the study of the valence bands of Mg-Cu and Mg-Au alloys (227). The d band widths in Cd-Mg and Cu-Zn alloys were studied (228) as well as the cadmium 4d spin orbit splitting in alloys of cadmium and magnesium (229).
A number of miscellaneous studies of alloys have been conducted. The structure of the valence band spectra of Co-Ni and Pd-Au alloys is related to the d states; the width of the valence band increases with increasing cobalt content (230). The ESCA emission spectra of Ge alloyed with Ni, Fe, and Au have been analyzed (231). Changes in the spectra of silver and palladium when alloyed have been investigated (232). The valence band spectra of Fe&, Fe3A1, and Fe3Si were investigated as a function of temperature (233). Temperature and composition dependent valence mixing of Sm in cation and anion substituted samarium sulfide has been studied by ESCA (234). The density of states of Zn and (3-brass have been determined (235). Soft x-ray emission and ESCA have been applied to the study of disordered aluminum alloys (236). Non-Metals and Semi-Conductors. The valence band of amorphous T e has been studied (237, 238); the bands consist primarily of 5s and 5p electrons. Differences are observed from bonding in trigonal tellurium. High resolution ESCA spectra of the valence bands of diamond, graphite and glassy carbon have been obtained with monochromatized radiation (239). The results have been interpreted in terms of orbital hybridization. An investigation of the valence band of graphite using ESCA and x-ray spectroscopy showed good agreement with density of states calculations (240).
A comprehensive survey of the valence band ESCA spectra for a variety of semi-conductors has been reported (241) in the 0-50 eV binding range using monochromatized A1 KO radiation. Band structure and photoemission studies on SnS2 and SnSe2 have been reported (242). Other sulfides which have been studied include chalcopyrite type semiconductors (243) and I-111-VI2 compounds (244). Studies on other types of semi-conductors have been carried out. ESCA spectra for group 111-V semi-conductors have been compared with measurements by uv adsorption, reflectivity, and energy loss (245). KP emission bands, UPS, and ESCA spectra were compared to calculate densities of states for the same types of compounds (246). Spectra have also been obtained for a group 113-Vz semi-conductors in order to characterize the valence bands (247). The valence band of germanium telluride has also been studied (248). Differences were discussed between the amorphous and crystalline As2Te3, AsnSeg, and As2S3 (249).
Other types of semi-conductors have been studied. The valence band spectra for the semi-conducting layered compounds Ga, Se, and BiI3 were measured (250). The semiconductor-metal transition in V02 has been investigated by electron spectroscopy (251). A similar transition in NbO2 (252) showed significant shifts of the Nb 4d and the oxygen 2p bands. ESCA spectra of semi-conductors composed of groups 1, 11, 111, and IV metals with group V metalloids have been compared (253). The valence band region of rare earth sulfides and related compounds have been studied; valence bands and occupied energy levels are reported as well as the co-existence of bivalent and trivalent ions in SmS, SmSb, TmSb, and TmTe (254). Insulators. Valence band spectra for a number of insulators have been reported and an ionicity scale based on ESCA valence band spectra of ANBB-Nand ANB1o-N crystals have been proposed (255). The systematics of the valence band spectra of the alkali halides have been recorded and the satellite structure discussed (256). Similarly, an analysis of the valence band structure of Ca, Sr, and Ba ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5, APRIL 1976
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fluorides has been reported (257). X-ray photoelectron and X-ray emission spectra have been obtained for titanium oxides (258). Similarly, the electronic structure of ZrS3 and ZrSe3 have been studied (259). The effect of charge density waves was observed in ESCA spectra of TaSz and TaSe2 as a perturbation of core electron binding energies (260). ESCA spectra in the valence electron region have been recorded for a number of gaseous silicon compounds (261). Multiplet structure in the 4f emission spectra from rare earth antiminides has been obtained using monochromatized radiation (262). Trapped electrons in sub-stoichiometric Mo (+6) oxide thin films have been observed by ESCA (263). The valence region of thiomolybdate and thiotungstate and their Cs salts have been studied (264). Transition metal compounds have also been a subject of study. Density of states measurements were performed on VO2, V203, and NiS (265). The structure of valence bands and the nature of chemical bonding in a number of transition metal halides of the group VIIA elements are reported (266). The valence band density of states for single-, microand polycrystalline NiO films have been measured (267). The ESCA spectra of the valence electrons in the halides of Ni, Co, Fe, and Mn have been reported (268). The temperature dependent energy bands of NiS have been calculated using the LCMTO method and have been shown to agree with ESCA spectra (269). The valence bands of cuprous halides and lead and cadmium iodides have been reported (270). The composite structure of these bands has been analyzed using deconvolution techniques. The partial p and d densities of states in CUI have been determined (271). ESCA has been used to investigate the valence bands of the silver halides; assignments of the photoemission peaks are made using a point charge electrostatic model (272). Valence band spectra of transition metal cyanides have been measured and interpreted (273). A similar study has been done on the valence band spectra of Pt cyanides (274). Several ESCA studies have been performed on the valence bands of small isoelectronic anions. Spectra have been obtained of the valence levels of A04X- anions (where A = P, S, C1, As, and Se), A03X- anions (where A = S, C1, I, Se, Te, Br) and A F G ~anions (A = Al, Si, and As) (275). A similar study has been done for cos2-, Nos-, N3-, NOz-, C104-, SO4-, C103-, and SOs2-; the results are interpreted using MO calculations (276). Similarly the lithium salts of sio44-, Pod3-, s04'-, clod-, c103-, ClOz-, s0s2-,sz03'-, Mn04-, and Cr04- have been measured and interpreted (277).
SURFACES AND CATALYSTS ESCA has been applied widely to studies of surfaces, adsorption at surfaces, catalysts, and catalytic reactions. Introductory and/or review articles which may be useful are surface characterization by ESCA (278), the application of ESCA to surface studies (279), the elucidation of surface structure and bonding (280) characterization of the type of surface information available from ESCA (2811, chemisorption on metals (282), surface analysis and angular distribution, (283), electron spectroscopy of transition metal ' oxide surface (284), and surface characterization by photoexcited Auger transitions (285). Adsorption of Gases. Transition Metals. The adsorption of oxygen on a number of transition metal surfaces has been studied and Is binding energies on 5 metals have been reported (286). Oxygen adsorption on nickel surfaces has permitted positive identification of three species and a fourth possibility (287). A theoretical interpretation of the ESCA spectra for oxygen adsorbed on nickel based on the SCF-XLUscattered wave cluster method has been put forth (288). The chemisorption of oxygen on Cu, Ag, and Au has also been studied (289). Both ESCA and UPS have been used to study the adsorption of CO on Ni (290), and a theoretical interpretation of these spectra has been advanced (291). Carbon monoxide adsorption on iron has been studied (292) indicating the importance of dissociative adsorption at temperatures higher than 290 K (292). Adsorption of a number of gases 298R
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5, APRIL 1976
on clean polycrystalline Ni films has been reported (293). ESCA has been used to study adsorption of CO, 02, NO and organic adsorbates on a Ni(II1) single crystal surface, as well as investigation of the surface reactions of the adsorbed species (294). The adsorption of COS,ethylene, and butadiene has been studied on the 110 and 111 surfaces of platinum (295). The adsorption and reduction of oxygen on Pt indicates a t least two adsorbed states of oxygen (296, 297). ESCA has also been used to study the dissociative adsorption of haloalkenes and haloalkynes on a Pt (110) surface (298). Multilayer adsorption of CBr4 on Pt has shown an anomalous broadening effect explained by image charge screening of the substrate (299). The adsorption of CO on Pd surfaces has been studied (300), as well as the adsorption of CO, NO, Hz, and 0 2 on polycrystalline Pd and Pd (110) (301). The CO valence levels for a monolayer of CO adsorbed on Ru were observed (3021, and there has been an investigation of the 0 Is satellites from monolayers of CO adsorbed on a single Ru crystal (303). Molybdenum and Tungsten. The adsorption of CO on polycrystalline Mo films was studied and two adsorption states were revealed (304). Adsorption of CO, CO2, 0 2 , and Hz0 on Mo and Au films revealed considerable dissociative adsorption (305). The adsorption of CO and 0 2 on polycrystalline W ribbon showed the presence of four possible states of CO and one of oxygen (306). CO adsorption on the 110 plane of tungsten has been described (307,308). It has been suggested that the major contributions to metal-CO bonding in adsorption is r-back bonding (309). A range of transition metals exhibited no clear chemical shifts in either their ESCA or Auger peaks on adsorption of a monolayer of either 0 2 or CO, although in some cases broadening occurred. This suggests that attempts to follow chemisorption by monitoring chemical shifts of the substrate are likely to be unsuccessful for metals (310). Other workers have found small shifts occurring in the core levels of Ru and W peaks for oxygen chemisorption (311). The adsorption of NO and N2 on polycrystalline tungsten ribbon has also been studied by ESCA. Large chemical shifts were observed between various adsorbed nitrogen states; chemical shifts indicated that NO is largely nondissociatively chemisorbed (312). The physical adsorption of xenon and the chemisorption of oxygen on W(II1) have been studied (313).The 0 1s line width decreases with increasing coverage; relaxation processes are dominant factors in determining the chemical shift on adsorption. ESCA spectra have been used to study the decomposition of ethylene on the 110 face of W along with LEED and work function changes (314). Other Substrates. The adsorption of oxygen on the surface of Nb foil has been studied (315). N 1s binding energies of NO adsorbed on NiO, C02O3, and graphite have been measured to determine the nature of bonding (316). Oxygen adsorption processes have been studied on GaAs (317) and the effect of oxygen contamination on the valence band shape and pyrolytic graphite has been reported (318).ESCA has been applied to studies of the adsorption of pyridine on alumina, silica, and chromia (319); the mechanism of the interaction between H2S and 0 2 adsorbed on lead to give a surface sulfide has been investigated (320). Surface Reactions. Metals. The application of ESCA to the oxidation of iron (and some other metals) by oxygen has been reported (321). Both intensity and chemical shift changes were observed after cleaning and exposure of iron to oxygen (322). The oxidation of iron has been under investigation using multiple techniques, in addition to ESCA: soft x-ray appearance potential spectroscopy and Auger spectroscopy (323). The reaction of clean metals (Mg, Al, Cr, Mg) with oxygen and water vapor has been studied; it was possible to differentiate between oxides, hydroxides, and adsorbed water (324). For oxidation of a nichrome surface, the chromium component was selectively converted to chromic oxide, while nickel remained in the metallic state (325). ESCA has been used to study the oxidation of various metals and alloys (326) as well as the surface oxidation of polycrystalline Cu (327). The nature of the Ru-oxygen species formed on a ruthenium catalyst surface has been studied
(328). The reactions of evaporated Fe, Ni, and P d films with NO have been investigated to discern the nature of intermediate species in these reactions (329). Similarly, the reaction of evaporated metal films with chlorine yields three types of chlorine species on the surface (330). Non-Metals. Oxidation of the 111surface of a single silicon crystal has been monitored using ESCA (331).Effects of heat treatment on CdS single crystals have been examined (332). Oxygen complexes formed on the surfaces of paracrystalline carbon have been studied in a combined approach with infrared reflectance and thermal stability measurements (333). Surface chemical reactions of metal and metal oxide films under high vacuum have been classified according to behavior in a vacuum (334).It has been shown that when a gold film is deposited on a silicon substrate, interaction at the Si-Au interface occurs (335). Bombardment of oxide surfaces with argon ions not only can produce sputtering but also can cause chemical reduction of some oxides (336). Oxides a n d Sulfides. Ratios of A1 2p oxide and metal peak intensities were measured as a function of angle for different specimens consisting of an aluminum substrate with a surface oxide layer. For triangular periodic diffraction grating surfaces, pronounced structure was observed in the angular distributions which agreed with those calculated from theory (337). The surface chemistry of nickel oxygen systems has been studied in order to distinguish various nickel-oxide species (338). Similarly ESCA spectra have been obtained for the iron oxygen system in order to characterize the 0 1s peaks due to oxide hydroxyl and adsorbed H20 (339).An ESCA study has been carried out on the nature of the oxide films (340). The oxide species on oxidized platinum electrodes have been studied; Pt(OH)2 has been identified as a possible major species (341).In another study, anodic oxidation of Au and Pt electrodes indicated the presence of oxides (342).PtS has been identified as a product for voltammetry of Pt electrodes in CH3CN solutions containing H2S (343). ESCA has also been employed to characterize various PdO species on the surface of oxidized palladium electrodes (344).The surface chemistry of the Cd- and Ag-0 systems has been studied using temperature changes and ion bombardment techniques to induce structural changes (345). UV irradiation of the lithium doped ZnO-oxygen system indicated that two types of oxygen were present (346). The nature of anodic oxide films on alumina have been studied (347-349). These studies were carried out in a variety of electrolytes. Similarly anodic film formation in binary alloys has been investigated. ESCA has been used to show that amorphous Si0 thin films are not a mixture of Si and Si02 (350). ESCA has also been used to characterize copper oxide surfaces treated with benzotriazol (351). Equations for photoelectron emission as a function of depth were used to determine the oxide layer of Si02 on Si. The measured film thickness agreed with ellipsometry, within experimental error (352). Catalysts. Homogeneous Catalysts. ESCA has great potential for studying homogeneous catalysts; although relatively few studies have been performed to date, this is an area which should see much expansion in the near future. Chromium acetylacetonate and some analogues have been measured (353)as have some complexes of di- and trivalent metal ions of 8-hydroxyquinoline (354). Molybdate Catalysts. A number of workers have reported studies on molybdate catalysts, particularly those used in hydrodesulfurization reactions. Binding energies have been reported for Co and Fe molybdates both fresh and sulfided (355). No features could be detected which could be attributed to molybdenum and cobalt in different structural environments in cobalt molybdate (356). Both Co and Mo binding energies were lowered after sulfiding. The reduction behavior of supported molybdenum oxide is substantially different from that of the unsupported oxide (357).The presence of a cobalt molybdate phase similar to CoMo04 on the surface of a cobalt molybdate catalyst was excluded. The valence states of a Mo-Al2O3 catalyst after reduction have been shown to be Mo6+, Mo5+ and Mo4+ (358).An alternate interpretation of the cobalt molybdate catalysts indicates that the surface phase resembles both MoO3, and CoA1204 (359).It has been shown that the pres-
ence of platinum enhances the reduction of molybdenum in supported catalysts (360). ESCA experiments on bismuth molybdate support a model which is a core of divalent molybdates with two surface shells (361).ESCA, infrared, and other techniques were used to study the Bi-Fe-molybdate system and indicated the presence of B?, Mo, Fe, and 0 with the metals being in the 3+, 6+, and 3+ oxidation states, respectively (362). Other Catalysts. Migration of Ag and P d in zeolite catalysts has been studied using ESCA (363).The state of Ni in nickel forms of Y-type zeolite indicated the nickel is reduced to Nio on hydrogen treatment (364).The inclination of cations to be reduced increases in the order of Fe < Co < Ni, Pt < Pd, and Cu < Ag for transition metal cations in synthetic faujasites (365). The Si/Al ratio of the external surface of zeolites has been shown to be twice that of the bulk (366). ESCA has been used to probe electronic changes in the environment of sodium following intercalation in the sodium montmorillonite pyridine system (367). The presence of both Cr (6+) and Cr (3+) in lanthanium oxide-chromium (3+) oxide catalysts has been confirmed (368).It has been shown that for tungsten carbide, the density of states near the Fermi level is closer to that of platinum than tungsten, thus explaining the catalytic effectiveness of this material (369).Copper oxide catalysts have also been studied (370).The state of Co in support cobalt catalysts has been determined using silica, alumina, and lanthanium oxide as supports (371). Matrix Effects. Metal-support interactions on support Ir catalysts have been studied using ESCA. Chemical shifts observed depend on the nature of the support increasing as ZnO < Si02 < Ti02 < A1203 (372).The value of ESCA as a technique for measuring metal particle size on dispersed catalyst systems has been demonstrated (373). Core level binding energies of metals in alloy and metal dispersed systems were studied. Chemical shifts observed are interpreted as a combination of matrix shift relaxation and work function as well as a chemical shift due to different d electron valences (374). ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Nitrogen, Phosphorus, a n d Arsenic Compounds. One of the most convenient ways for correlating ESCA chemical shifts of organic compounds is to use group shifts. Group shifts have been reported for N Is, P 2p, and As 3p binding energies, derived from experimentally measured shifts of 100 nitrogen, 75 phosphorus, and 25 arsenic compounds (375). Small Nitrogen Molecules. N Is spectra for the following compounds have been observed: methylamine (376),acetonitrile and nitromethane (3771, N,N-dimethylnitramine, N,N-dimethylnitrosoamine (3781,and EDTA (379). Cyclic Nitrogen Compounds. Spectra for the following compounds have been obtained: 1,2- and 1,3-anilides of squaric acid (380),pyrrole and pyrrole pigments (381),diazocyclopentadiene (382),azaporphyrins (383) and a series of narcotics and narcotic antagonists (384). Phosphorus Compounds. ESCA spectra have been obtained for phosphorus ylides (3851, the bond character in phosphorus ylides has also been studied (386).Some compounds of the structure (RC&)3PO (387) and a series of 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethanes, 1-(diphenylphosphine)-2-(dimethylamino)ethanes and related compounds have been studied (388). S u l f u r a n d Selenium Compounds. The application of electron spectroscopy to the chemistry of sulfur compounds has been reviewed (389).Sulfur compounds measured during the period of this review are: compounds derived from active methylene compounds and carbon disulfide (390), 1,2-dithiolium salts (391), 1,2-dithiol derivatives (392), 1H-1,2,4,6-thiaIv thiazines (393). Thiuram diselenides have also been studied (394). Fluorine Compounds. Remotive and inductive effects in the fluorinated tert- butanols have been studied using ESCA and correlated with a variety of charge calculation methods (395). The fluorine ion trimerization product from perfluorocyclobutene has been studied (396). Electron distribution in trifluoromethylbenzenes and the electron donating effect of the trifluoromethyl group have been 4NALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5, APRIL 1976
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reported (397). Aromatics and Heterocyclics. Gas phase ESCA spectra have been obtained from CeHbR where R = H, Me, "2, OH, F, C1, Br, NOz, CN (398). Steric inhibition of resonance in nitroanilines has been studied (399). Core binding energies have been measured for the chlorobenzenes (400).ESCA spectra have been obtained for p-benzoquinone, hydroquinone, and their halogen substituted derivatives (401).The five-membered ring compounds: furan, yrrole, thiophene, and their saturated homologues have een studied (402).Methyl substituted pyridines and 3,2borazapyridines have been measured (403). Core electron binding energies of 3-substituted 2-nitrosoimino-2,3-dihydrobenzothiozoles have been reported (404). Polymers. ESCA measurements have been made on a number of polymers. The electronic structure of polyethylene has been studied (405), as have correlations between ESCA and 13C NMR chemical shifts of carbons in linear polymers (406).ESCA spectra of single crystal diacetylene polymers are reported and show good agreement with semiempirical MO calculations (407). The composition and structure of co-polymers of ethylene with tetrafluoroethylene have been studied (408),and the application of ESCA to surface fluorination of polyethylene has been studied as a function of depth (409). Pol etrafluorethylene films etched in Na-NHS showed only and C spectra, no N, S, or F (410).ESCA has confirmed the structure of polyhexafluorobut-2-yne rather than a cross-linked system (411). The degree of crystallinity of fluorine containing polymers has been measured by ESCA (412). Correlation between theoretical calculation and observed states of fluoropolymers is good (413). Donor-Acceptor Complexes. The charge transfer complex between pyridine and IC1 has been studied in the gas phase (414).Chloranil-donor adducts have been studied in the solid state; ESCA measurements correlated with chemical changes occurring subsequent to charge transfer complex formation (415). The complexes of 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene and picric acid with piperidine have been correlated with CNDO/2 calculations (416). Charge transfer complexes of organosilicon derivatives of thiophene have been studied (417).Detailed studies of the core electron profiles of tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) have revealed satellite lines for the parent compound and 18 of its complexes. The satellites are attributed to a shake-up process (418). Measurements have also been performed on tetrathiofulvane-TCNQ complexes (419,420). Evidence for a rapid double bond shift in donor-acceptor substituted cyclobutadienes has been obtained from ESCA measurements (421).Stable carbocations have been examined using l3C NMR and ESCA. Of particular interest is the 2-norbornyl cation (422).The functional groups on the surface of a fluorinated diamond have been characterized and qualitatively estimated by ESCA (423).
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INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ESCA measurements on inorganic compounds have been quite numerous, both for metals, nonmetals, and for complexes. Treatment of inorganic compounds will be divided into four sections: series of compounds, simple compounds, complexes and Mossbauer studies. Series of Compounds. This section will cover those papers in which a series of metals or non-metals were measured as opposed to studies of either a single compound or compounds of a single metal. The latter types of compounds will be covered in the subsection on simple compounds. Metals. Groups IA, IIA, and IB. Alkali and alkaline earth metal fluorides (4241, Li compounds (425), Ag and Cu compounds (426). Group IIB. Zn compounds (427), Hg compounds (428), Cd compounds (429),zinc halides (430). Group 111. Aluminosilicates (431),Ga compounds (432). Group IVB. T i compounds (433), Ti and Zr hydrides (434). Group VA and VB. V compounds (4351, Nb compounds (436),V and Nb hydrides (434),S b halides (437),As compounds (432),S b and Bi compounds (429). Group VIB. Cr compounds (438),Mo compounds (439). 300R
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Group VIII. Co, Ni, and Cu oxides and hydroxides (440), Fe compounds (441), Fe-S compounds (442), Co compounds (443), Co and Ni halides (430), Ni compounds (444-447). Rare earths (448).Actinides. T h comDounds (449)and U compounds (450). Non-Metals. Group IVA. Carbonates (451),silicon minerals (452).Denta- and hexa-coordinate silicon comDounds (453),'aseries of C, Si, and Ge compounds in the ga; phase (454). Group VA. Tetracovalent N and P compounds in the gas phase (455), phosphoryl and thiophosphoryl compounds (456), P ( 3 f ) compounds, phosphonium salts, and oxy acids of phosphorus (457), a series of phosphorus compounds (458),azides (459). Oxyanions. Ox anions of the structure AOdX- (A = P, S, C1. As. Se): A O I Z (A = S. C1. Se. Te. Br). and AFfiX- (A = Al: Si,'and'S) (2601.' Simple Compounds. Metals. Groups IVB, VB, and VIB. T i c (461).Nb oxides (4621. Mo sulfides (463). Mo oxides and sulfides (464),and sodium tungsten oxide (465). Groups VIIB, VIII. Manganese borides (466), iron, cobalt, and nickel disulfides (467),cobalt oxides (468),nickel oxide (469), lithium doped nickel oxide (470), and PtSi (471). Groups IB and IIB. Copper organo acetylides (4721, Zn and Cd halides (473). Group IVA. Lead oxides (474-476). Rare earths. Lanthanium and cerium halides (477),ytterbium and lutetium oxides (478), and samarium boride (479). Actinides. Uranium oxides (480,4811. Non-Metals. Groups IVA and VA. Si02 (482), GeOz (482), HN3 and azide ions (483), volatile phosphorus halides (484), bisdifluorophosphino- and tridifluorophosphinoamines (485). Group VIA. Cyclic sulfur imides (486), sulfur (SB) (487), Ge-Te-As-S glasses (488).thiazvl fluoride and thionvl fluoride (489),sdfuryl chloride (489),and sulfur chloride fluoride (489). Group VIIA. Chlorine monofluoride (490). Rare Gases. Implanted in noble metals (491),xenon fluorides and xenon oxide tetrafluoride (492). Minerals. Exchangeable cations in montmorillonite (493),synthetic sodalites (494),and amorphous chalcogenides (495). Coordination Compounds. Coordination compounds will be classified by the ligand where series of compounds having the same ligand have been reported. Otherwise they will be listed by metals. The application of electron spectroscopy to inorganic chemistry with particular emphasis on coordination compounds has been reviewed (496). Arenes, Alkenes and Carbenes. Bis-arene complexes of Cr (497), cyclopentadienyl and cycloheptatrienyl compounds of Ti, V, and Cr (498), bis-arene complexes of Cr, Mn, and Fe (499), 1,5-hexadiene complexes of Pd, Pt, and Rh (500),and Cr carbene complexes (501). Nitrosyls and Carbonyls. 0 Is and N 1s electrons for a series of nitrosyls (502), pentacyanonitrosyls (503, 504), first row carbonyls (505),Mo and W carbonyls (5061, Mn pentacarbonyls (507). Halides and Pseudohalides. The coordination of different donor solvents in quick frozen SbCls solutions (508), mixed valence compound of dicesiumhexachloroantimonate (509),distinction between the bridging and terminal metal chlorine bonds in metal halide clusters of Ru (3+) and Mo (2+) (510) binding energy shifts within the series Re2X+n(Pr&+n where X = chlorine or bromine (511), bistriphenylphosphine Pt ( 2 + ) pseudohalides (512), thiocyanate and isothiocyanate complexes (513,514). Cyanides. Cyano complexes of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co (515),iron pentacyanide (516),the reaction products of sodium nitroprusside with hydrazine, hydroxylamine, and ammonia (517 ) , some first transition series metal cyanide complexes containing inequivalent atoms (Ni, Mn, Fe, and Co) (518). Hydroxyazo Compounds. Schiff bases of Ni and Cu (519),Schiff bases of Co (520), salicylaldoxime complexes of Ni, Cu, and Co (521, 522), Co-SALEN complexes (523), Mn-SALEN (524),8-hydroxyquinoline chelates (5251, and orthohydroxyaromatic azo complexes (526). '
I
I
I
I
I
Dithiocarbamates and Related Compounds. Fe(3+)(527),Sn(2+)-dithiocarbamates (528), transition metal diethyldithiocarbamate complexes (529),Cu(2+) dithiizonate (530), Ni(2+) dithiocarbazato complexes (531),Cu and Pt metal complexes of diphenylthiourea (532),Ni and P d dithiene complexes (533). Porphyrins and Related Compounds. Ag(3+) octaethylporphyrin (534),Cu complexes of tetraphenylporphine and phthalocyanine (535), reduced porphines of Co and CU (5361,and Fe phthalocyanine (537). Nitrogen and Amines. Dinitrogen complexes of iridium, cobalt, and iron, as well as diazo compounds and azides (538), manganese dinitrogen, dimide, hydrazine, and ammonia complexes (539), hydroxylamide and methyl hydroxylamide complexes of Zn, Cd, Pt, Co, Ni (540), metal EDTA chelates (541), and N 1s spectra of biguanide complexes of Cr, Ag, Cu, Co, and Ni (542). Miscellaneous. Nickel, copper and palladium complexes of N,W-ethylene-bis(acety1acetoneiminato)dianion(5431, Cu(2+) salts of p-dicarbonyl compounds (544),and sulfoxide complexes (545). The following sets of compounds are more conveniently classified by metal than by ligand: ZZZB a n d ZVB. Sc(3+) complexes with organic oxygen donor molecules (546) and Zr and Hf complexes of a-alanine (547). VZB, VZZB, and VZZZ. co(3+) complexes of dimethylglyoxime (548, 549), Co(3+) Bnd Ni(2+) amine complexes (550), a series of C0(2+) and co(3+) complexes including vitamin B12 (551), Co and Ni amine complexes (552), Mn complexes of nitrogen and oxygen donor molecules (553) and dichloro-dinitrosyl bis(tripheny1phosphine) molybdenum(I1) (554). ZB.Copper tetracyanoquinodimethane complexes (555), a variety of copper chelates (556), oxaziridine-silver fluoroborate complexes (557), silver complexes of pyridine, carboxylic acids, and 8-hydroxyquinoline (558). Correlations with Mossbauer Data. Studies correlating Mossbauer and ESCA shifts have been concentrated primarily on iron and tin, although one paper has been reported on iridium compounds. The 3p and 2p ESCA spectra were correlated with Mossbauer shifts for a series of iron compounds (559), a series of iron phthalocyanines were studied (560), and a series of halogeno (tolyl isocyanide) iron(I1) complexes (561). Tin 3d spectra were correlated for the compounds (t-C4H)2SnM(CO)x-Bwhere M = Fe, X = 4 and B = Me2S04 and pyridine; also, M = Cr, X = 5, B = THF, Me2S04 and pyridine (562). Compounds of the form Et2SnX2 where X = F, C1, Br and I (563). Mossbauer and ESCA studies were applied to frozen solutions of SbC15 and tin tetrahalides to study solvation and solvation complexes (564). A series of triphenylphosphine iridium complexes have been studied measuring the Ir 4f and N 1s photoelectrons (565).
N,Ndialkyldithiocarbamates
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Relative Intensities. The relative intensities of ESCA spectra for elements with 2 < 20 have been measured and compared with calculations. The experimental and theoretical values showed good agreement for 1s levels with discrepancies for 2p levels. Relative intensities of the molecular levels for a variety of compounds were also studied (566). Similar studies have been done on relative intensities for elements between 2 = 22 and 2 = 56 (567, 568). In another study, relative signal intensities have been compared using A1 and Mg anodes for compounds of 76 elements. Better reproducibility was found with a high intensity Mg source than with A1 (569). Relative ESCA intensities for photoelectron and Auger lines from NaCl and NaF allowed measurement of the subshell photoionization cross-sections for Na 2s,2p; C1 2s2p; 3s3p and F Is, 2s, and 2p (570).Relative inelastic cross-sections were obtained using binary alloys forming a homogeneous phase; measurements were performed on clean surfaces (571). A theory relating expected ESCA intensity to atomic and instrumental parameters has been developed. Calculations were compared with experiment for elements 2 < 68 (572).
Factors Affecting Quantitative Analysis. The effect of the roughness of sample surface on quantitative measurements in ESCA has been elucidated with an eye to minimizing or eliminating the effect (573). The effect of energy loss for free electrons in solids on quantitative measurements has been studied. Changes in the Na ls/F l s ratio for a series of compounds were explained on the basis of differences in energy loss spectra (574). A simple model has been described for calculating relative intensities of ESCA peaks for different elements in a homogeneous sample. The calculated values were compared with experimental values both for gases and solids, showing satisfactory agreement (575). A rapid method for quantitative measurement of a multielement alloy has been developed, independent of surface roughness and contamination. Binary alloys were used as reference samples, the accuracies observed were within a few percent (576). Internal standards have been shown to yield linear calibration plots for ESCA. The atomic sensitivity for a given element depends on the specific compound (577). Variation in ESCA signal intensities as a function of chemical compound has been interpreted in terms of the dependence of photoelectron escape probability on the immediate environment of the emission center. A linear correlation was found between normalized intensity ratios and the fractional escape solid angle ratio (578). Applications. Trace Analysis. ESCA has been applied as a trace technique employing electrochemical deposition of metal ions onto an electrode. Sensitivity is a t the partsper-billion level (579). Acrylic acid grafted polypropylene has been used to collect trace metals from the solution for ESCA measurements. Approximately 1 part-per-million sensitivity was obtained for Cu, Fe, Ba, Ca, Pb, and Hg (580).The chemical states of sulfur present in air particulate matter have been identified. Seven separate chemical species of sulfur were found in samples studied: SO3, S042-, SO2, S032-,elemental sulfur, and 2 sulfides (581). The use of ESCA as a technique for characterizing atmospheric particulates, particularly the chemical states of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon has been reviewed (582). Polymers. ESCA has been used for determining the relative amounts of quarternary ammonium and tertiary ammonium nitrogens present in cellulose polymers (583).The rate of air oxidation of phosphorus in THPOH-ammonia treated fabrics has been studied (584).The use of ESCA as a technique for fiber and textile surface analysis has been reviewed (585). Bulk Analysis. Intensity coefficients have been determined for the measurement of Si, Na, Ca, Al, and B in glass. Precision was superior to that obtained by Auger spectroscopy (586). Calcium borate glasses containing Fe have been studied with ESCA, parallel with Mossbauer studies. The 2p spectrum of Fe in this glass was shown similar to that of precipitated FepO3 (587). Binding energies have been tabulated for elements in phosphate glasses containing iron; ESCA has been shown a useful qualitative and quantitative tool for these materials (588). ESCA has been used to study decomposition in neutron irradiated copper oxides (589). The average degree of reduction of the superficial layers of Co304 was measured (590). The chemical state of impurity atoms in ion implanted semi-conductors has been measured. Intensity ratios established the impurity profile and indicated residual damage after annealing (591).ESCA has also been used to study the Co and S content of several high coking coals (592). Two sulfur 2p peaks were found corresponding to sulfate and sulfide. No separate organic sulfur peaks were observed (592). The tribochemical oxidation of MoS2 has also been studied (593). Surface Analyses. METALSAND ALLOYS.Platinum surfaces have been analyzed for contaminants arising from exposure to 0 2 , CO, and COZ. Limits of detection for C and 0 were 0.01 monolayer (594). Films sputtered from a platinum cathode in argon-oxy en mixtures showed the presence of Pt2O as well as Pt8 and Pt (595). Depth profiles were obtained for Nichrome films using argon ion sputtering. The formation of thin insulating films at the interface between two metals caused by solid state reactions was demonstrated (596). Surface enrichment effects caused by heating, oxidation, ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5, APRIL 1976
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and reduction were observed for Pt-Sn alloys (597). ESCA was used to study surface enrichment of PtSn and Pt3Sn alloys reduced by hydrogen. Both alloys exhibit surface enrichment and depletion of the underlying layers over ca. 10 8, (598). The passive films formed on anodized Cu-Ni alloys were investigated. The chemical species of the film were shown to be Ni and Cu oxides (599). The air formed oxide layer on Permalloy films was characterized using ESCA and argon ion etching. The oxide film has a composition quite different from that of pure Permalloy, the Fe/Ni ratio in the oxide layer being twice that in the bulk. The concentration of oxidized nickel falls off faster with depth than that of oxidized iron (600). Oxidation of stainless steel specimens showed that the surfaces contained mainly iron and chromium oxides and metallic nickel. Enrichment in Cr and Ni increased with increasing temperature (601). Surface films of chromic acidelectrolytically treated steel showed that chromium on the film consisted primarily of hydrated chromium oxide and metallic chromium layers (602). Studies on passivated Cr-Ni stainless steel revealed two types of oxygen with binding energies corresponding to those of hydroxides and oxides. Intensities were potential dependent (603). Samples of two stainless steels having nominally the same bulk composition were examined. The outer most layers were Cr deficient and ESCA spectra suggested the presence of Fez03 a t the surface. The chromium oxide increased as a function of depth reaching a maximum a t the Cr-Fe oxide interface (604). ESCA spectra from stainless steel surfaces electrolyzed in sulfuric acid showed weak Ni signals. The Cr/Fe ratios depended on potential (605). Oxidation of stainless steel in oxygen showed the surface layer contained mostly iron oxide. At higher temperatures, the Cr and Mn content of the steel surface increased. No Ni was observed in the oxide layer (606). A fracture device for an ESCA spectrometer was applied to examination of welds in steel. Fracture surfaces yielded signals of C, N, S, and 0 as well as iron in the oxidized state. Sb was found in the fracture surface of specimens embrittled by long annealing in oxygen (607). The valence state and distribution in layers of metals and their oxides on some steels have been studied. In the oxide layers grown in air, Mo was mainly hexavalent; Cr, trivalent; and Ti, tetravalent (608). GLASS. The characterization of glass surfaces using ESCA has been reviewed (609). ESCA has been shown valuable in the evaluation of organic finishes on glass fibers, identifying specific groups such as amines, amides, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine (610). The surface composition of glass fibers has been studied. Surface fibers of A-glass showed a strong reduction in calcium content with a sodium content similar to the bulk. After aging, the calcium content remained constant while the sodium content increased (611). Diffusion of calcium to the surface of glass fibers on heat treatment was shown for E-glass. Leaching of aluminum by acid was related to pH. The ability of ESCA to detect organic functional groups attached to glass fiber surfaces and to follow reactions was demonstrated (612). The attack of water on glass surfaces has been studied by ESCA. Such factors as the rapidity of ion exchange, fluctuation of sodium content during water exposure, and migration of sodium and calcium to the surface layer were studied (613). PLASTICSAND POLYMERS. The migration of tin stabilizers from unplasticized PVC film into fat-containing foods was examined using ESCA and radioanalytical techniques (614).The surface characterization of fluorine-containing polymers has been done; F/C ratios for polymethacrylates were higher and O/C ratios lower than stoichiometric values. The discrepancies between experimental and stoichiometric values were explained by surface roughness, molecular orientation, surface contamination, and sample matrix composition (615).ESCA has been shown useful for studying the adhesion failure mechanism in polymers bonded to aluminum. Thin layers of polymers were found to remain on A1 surfaces after the bulk polymer had been stripped (616).ESCA has also been shown useful to characterize cure inhibition in a polysiloxane adhesive (617). ELECTRODES.ESCA has been used to characterize Fephthalocyanine electrodes on a gold substrate prepared by 302R
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vacuum deposition (618). ESCA spectra of graphite electrodes used as an anode in molten KF-HF indicated that a polymeric fluorocarbon film was formed on the surface (619). ESCA was used to study the oxidation state and morphology of electrodes for iron-based batteries (620).
BIOCHEMISTRY It is quite amazing that there have been so few applications of electron spectroscopy to biochemistry, particularly to biomedical studies, during these past two years. This is obviously an area which is very fruitful for future investigations. The application of ESCA to the study of biological materials with particular emphasis on metal ion protein binding has been reviewed (621). The analysis of modified proteins by ESCA has been described, and was most accurate for chemical modifications involving elements of high sensitivities such as F or Hg. The N and F content measured by ESCA and chemical analysis were compared and showed agreement within 5%. The ability to detect 0.5% Hg in mercuripapain was established (622). Mono-dispersed mercury thionein was prepared and the S electrons showed a 1-eV shift relative to the native metallothionein. No such effect was observed for the Hg electrons. The binding energies of the S 2p electrons of Hg-, Cd-, and Zn-metallothionein were compared with low molecular weight amino acid chelates (623). Copper binding to AMP has been investigated by I3C NMR and electron spectroscopy (624). The sulfur 2p region of Cu-, Co- and apo-derivatives of bean plastocyanine were measured to establish the S metal coordination in both Cu and Co plastocyanines. The cysteine residue furnishes the sulfur donor atom (625). ESCA spectra of the 2p, 3s, and 3p levels of Fe in ferredoxin show that the eight iron atoms are indistinguishable. Shake-up lines were measured as were those in high-potential Fe-S proteins and oxidized spinach ferredoxin (626). Glutathione peroxidase showed ESCA signals from the Se 3d electrons. After addition of HzO, a marked shift of this signal (ca. 3.5 eV) was observed. The shift was reversible. This indicates that the enzyme bound Se moiety participates in the catalytic process (627).The spectra of Se-methionine, se-cysteine, Seurea, and Se-selenodicysteine were recorded and the oxidation state of Se was monitored. The reversible oxidation of Se-cysteine using Hz02 and NaBH4 was demonstrated (628).The binding energies of N, 0, P, C1, and Pt in several DNA-Pt complexes have been reported. Oxygen binding energies showed that the cis-Pt complex formed a specific chelate with DNA as opposed to the trans-Pt complex and other Pt compounds which reacted only with a single site (629). ESCA has been used to provide information on the ionization energy differences between core electrons and different spin states in hemin. Calculated and experimental values compared well (630).
AUGER SPECTROSCOPY Auger Spectroscopy (AES) developed as a separate field from ESCA, primarily because Auger has traditionally used an electron gun source and the spectra have been measured under low resolution in order to achieve higher signal intensities. Auger electrons arise from a secondary emission process as opposed to ESCA which involves measurement of primary photoelectrons. However much of what the two techniques measure is basically the same. For any given problem, either ESCA or Auger spectroscopy may have a particular advantage, electron gun excitation is capable of looking a t small areas of the surface and x-ray excitation is generally less destructive. The review of Auger spectroscopy will be of selected Auger references. I do not intend that it should be a comprehensive review, fewer references will be listed than under ESCA, although the total number of references published on Auger spectroscopy outnumbers ESCA. The articles selected here will reflect my personal prejudice as to what will be of interest to the readers of Analytical Chemistry. As was the case with ESCA, I will list only review articles which are readily available and in English. These will be
primarily associated with applications, although some fundamental articles will be listed. Some reviews will be given in specific areas of application as was done with ESCA. Two reviews of interest for historical note have been published by Auger (631) and Harris (632). A very authoritative review on all aspects of the Auger effect has appeared (633). A general review of the Auger process and its application in surface analysis is available (634). A review of the nature of secondary electrons as a result of cascade and shake-off processes has been done (635), as well as a review of interatomic Auger transitions (636). A particularly valuable contribution is the handbook of Auger electron sDectroscoDv tabulating a large spectra of - number of Auger . eiements (637). Several articles have treated the broader asDects of the application of AES to surface analysis (638-840). Techniques for elemental profiling in thin films and the use of AES for thin film analysis also have been looked at (641, 642). Analytical aspects of the Auger effect have been discussed (643). The use of Auger spectroscopy for three-dimensional elemental analysis of materials has been reviewed (644) as well as depth profiling with Auger spectroscopy (645), the application of AES to metallurgical problems (646), and to materials research (647). I
CHEMICAL EFFECTS Auger Chemical Shifts. Measurements of Chemical Shifts. The chemical shifts in photoexcited Auger spectra have been tabulated for the elements Fe through Se, using measurements on vacuum deposited metal films (648). Auger signals obtainable under x-ray excitation have been listed for 16 elements and their alloys; chemical shifts, half widths, and detailed structures have been reported (649). In another work, the same authors have reported measurements of the Auger spectra of 50 compounds and have shown that the chemical shift for a given element is in the same direction as the photoelectron signals (650). Other papers have dealt with less extensive tabulations of Auger chemical shifts, mostly for specific elements or compounds. The shifts for Mg, MgO, and Mg alloys have been reported (651). The Auger spectra were measured for Mg, Al, and Mn and compared with their oxides (652). The Auger spectra of vanadium oxides, nitride, carbide, sulfide, and silicides have been compared to the element (653). Chemical shifts have been obtained for a stable germanium oxide formed by deposition of a silicon oxide film on a germanium substrate (654). X-ray induced Auger spectra have been recorded for Cu, CuO, CunO, CuzS, and the chemical shifts reported (655). Chemical shifts in AgzO and Ago were studied under x-ray excitation (656). AES has been used to study uranium metal and oxidized uranium metal surfaces to obtain chemical shifts (657). Chemical Shifts on Adsorption a n d Reaction. Chemical effects have been observed in the Auger spectrum of Mo following the adsorption of 0 2 and CO on clean Mo surfaces (658). Similarly, a chemical shift in the Auger spectrum of W caused by oxygen adsorption has been reported (659). Other workers have reported shifts in W and Mo Auger spectra during adsorption of oxygen (660). X-ray excited Auger chemical shifts of oxidized Cu, Ni, and Fe surfaces have been studied (661).Auger spectra have been obtained of passive films on polycrystalline iron and the chemical shifts noted (662). Interpretation. The Auger spectra of metallic Cu and Zn have been measured and a theory developed to predict Auger energies. Suggestions are that extra-atomic relaxation may be a crucial factor in the Auger energy shifts arising from chemical environments and surface conditions (663). The relationship between Auger chemical shifts and shifts in electron binding energies has been described in terms of final state coupling, relaxation, and reference energies. The difference between electron binding energies and Auger shifts in solids is equal to the difference in the corresponding extraatomic relaxation energies (664). A comparative study on the Auger spectra of Mg and MgO surfaces indicated that charging effects were responsible for the shifts observed (665). The Auger parameter, the difference between kinetic energies of an Auger electron and a photoelectron from the
same element, is characteristic of the chemical state and has been used for qualitative analysis. This term has been analyzed in terms of the energies of ground state orbitals, intraatomic relaxation energies, extraatomic relaxation energies and electron-electron interaction terms (666). Molecular Auger Spectra. The high resolution KLL Auger spectrum of C302 was recorded and assignments were made (667). The Auger spectrum of water vapor has been measured (668) and SCF and C1 calculations have been used to assign the Auger spectrum and the satellites in the soft x-ray spectrum of water (669). The Auger spectrum of H F in the gas phase was measured and the peaks identified with transitions to the expected final states in HF2+.The relative energies and intensities were quite similar to the Auger spectrum of the isoelectronic neon atom (670). The LLM Auger spectra of GeH4 have been deconvoluted to determine the energies of the individual component peaks. Differences in the molecular relaxation energies of other Ge compounds relative to GeH4 were calculated (671). The LLM Auger spectra of silicones have been measured (672). The multiplet splitting of final stages of Auger transitions for various transition metal complexes have been correlated with ligand field effects (673). Molecular orbital effects in the titanium LMV Auger spectra of titanium oxides has been discussed (674). Interatomic Auger Processes. The lifetimes of core hole states depends on interatomic Auger processes involving transitions from ligand valence electrons. This affects line widths and a variety of spectral features (675). The fine structure of the Auger peaks of 0, S, N, and C adsorbed on Cu, Ni, and Fe has been interpreted in terms of an interatomic process in which the up and down electrons originate in the d band of the metal (676). Oxidation of sodium films showed Auger transitions arising from the interface between the oxide and the underlying metal (677).
COMBINATION WITH OTHER TECHNIQUES Auger spectroscopy has been successfully combined with other techniques to study a variety of surface problems. Some examples of these combinations will be given here. Auger spectroscopy has been compared with secondary ion mass spectrometry and ion back scattering as a technique for surface and thin film compositional analysis (678). Low Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED). One of the most frequent combinations with Auger spectroscopy is LEED. Surface characterization using these two techniques has been reviewed (679). LEED-Auger has been used to study surfaces of p-type GaAs. Adsorption data obtained by Auger was compared with LEED patterns (680). In another study, Auger was used to measure the O/Cs ratio during activation of GaAs, while LEED was used to show that the Cs-0 layer was amorphous (681). LEED-Auger was used to study the initial interaction between Fe (001) and oxygen at room temperature. Auger was used to monitor chemisorption of oxygen while LEED data indicated changes in surface structure (682). Cleaved surfaces of EuO were studied, with LEED giving basic surface structure (683). Similar studies were carried out on cleaved NiO (100) surfaces (684). The mechanism of oxidation of Fe-Cr single crystals has been studied (685). The condensation of gold onto clean and contaminated single crystal T a (100) surfaces indicated that after 314 of a monolayer, the T a surface structure was observed but beyond that distortions occurred (686). Frequently LEED-Auger studies are combined with other techniques as well. For example, LEED-AugerRHEED (Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction) have been used to study adsorption of oxygen on the clean and contaminated (112) face of tungsten (687). LEEDAuger has been combined with work function changes to study adsorption of iodine on tungsten (688)and the chemisorption of H, 0, C, CO, S, Se, and T e on clean Ni single crystals (689). A LEED-Auger-mass spectrometry system has been used to study the redox processes of Fe (100) surfaces (690). Flash desorption has been combined with Auger-LEED to study the interaction of NO with a Ni (111)surface (691) and the mechanism of decomposition of formic acid on carburized and graphitized nickel (110) (692). Another interesting combination witn Auger-LEED ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 5. APRIL 1976
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has been field-ion microscopy to study the structure and composition of ion bombarded tungsten surfaces (693). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Scanning electron microscopy offers an additional parameter to Auger spectroscopy. One report has been the study of thin film interdiffusion and intermetallic compound formation and oxidation in alloy systems such as Ta-Pt-Ta-Au, Ti-Pt-Au, and W-Au (694).The nature of the interdiffusional process of gold a t GaAs interfaces has been studied by this combination of techniques (695). Similar studies have been reported for the examination of Ag-CdO contacts (696). Adhesion and friction of polytetrafluoroethylene in contact with metals has been studied by a combination of AES, SEM, and field ion microscopy (697). Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). One of the most potentially valuable combinations with Auger spectroscopy is that of SIMS. Elemental analysis using the Auger-SIMS technique has been reviewed (698). The determination of light elements (N, C, 0) in sputtered T a films using Auger-SIMS has been reported. SIMS detection limits for 0 and C were in the ppm and for N in the 0.1 atomic percent range; Auger detection limits for N, C, and 0 were in the 0.3-0.4% range (699). A composition profile of ion plated Au film on Cu has been analyzed by Auger-SIMS using xenon-ion bombardment. Sodium and potassium ions were the predominant peaks in the SIMS spectra but were less evident in the Auger spectra, indicating the difference in sensitivities of the two techniques (700).The SIMS-Auger technique was also applied to composition profiles of Pt and P d silicides (701).A comparison has been run on Auger and SIMS as techniques for the determination of Ag and Cu coverage on W (110) crystals. Auger was superior because of its signal to coverage relationship and its insensitivity to environmental effects; however SIMS exhibited a strong selectivity to the top surface layer (702).SIMS and Auger have been applied to partial oxidation of surfaces for Al, Si, Ti, V, and Cr (703).The combination of Auger and SIMS has been discussed for application to the analysis of thin films (704). Auger-SIMS and proton resonance profiling were compared by application to the analysis of ion implanted Si wafers. Sensitivity limits were approximately 0.1% indicating that Auger spectroscopy was less sensitive than SIMS (705). Depth Profiling Techniques. The combined use of depth profiling and Auger spectroscopy has been reviewed (706). This combination has considerable value for establishing elemental distribution as a function of depth, with depth resolution in the Angstrom region. A chemical profile analysis of stainless steel indicated that Mo concentrations decreased and the Fe and Ni concentrations increased during sputtering (707). Composition depth profiles for air-oxidized stainless steel indicated the formation of an iron oxide layer with Cr and Ni appearing only deeper in the bulk (708). The depth distribution of P in silica was measured and showed the phosphorus concentration to be relatively constant throughout (709). Depth distributions of B, P, and F ions implanted into silica have been determined using a combination of Auger spectroscopy with Xe-ion sputtering (710). Electron-stimulated adsorption of CO on stainless steel, silicon, and Si02 was studied using both argon-ion and xenon-ion bombardment combined with Auger (711 ). A problem with depth profiling has been the alignment of the electron and sputter ion beams so they are coincident a t the focal point of the analyzer. A technique has been reported to allow direct, precise, and quick alignment of the argon ion beam utilizing the optics of the Auger spectrometer (712). A variety of factors affecting depth profiling measurements using Auger spectroscopy have been discussed (713). Miscellaneous. Ion scattering has been combined with Auger spectroscopy to obtain some interesting results. Both methods have been applied to metal sandwiched targets of Be, Cu, and Ng; back-scattering gives quantitative thickness measurements (714). Ion back-scattering and Auger spectroscopy were compared for the determination of various coverages of S on Ni. Both techniques were found to be linear for sub-monolayer coverage. Ion scattering is more sensitive to the position of the adsorbed atoms than AES (715).In another study, Auger spectroscopy and 304R
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ion scattering studied the adsorption of S and 0 on Ni (111) (716). A combination instrument has been used for Auger and ion scattering measurements by simple changes in deflection and secondary ion multiplier voltages. Routine switch-over is easy (717 ) . Energy loss spectroscopy has been combined with AES to study the oxidation of clean Mo surfaces (718).Similarly these two techniques have been used to study the chemisorption of "3, N2, and nitride formation on a Mo surface (719). Another potent combination is that of Auger spectroscopy with ellipsometry. Phosphorus redistribution during thermal oxidation of doped silicon was investigated by the combination of these techniques (720). Aluminum fatigue damage has been characterized using the combination of ellipsometry and AES (721). Flash desorption and Auger spectroscopy have been used to study the interaction of COn on tungsten surfaces (722). Similarly, a combination of the techniques was used to monitor water formation on a platinum catalyst (723). The interactions of 0 2 , H20, NO, and NH3 with thermally cleaned Si (111)surfaces was studied using AES and electron impact desorption (724).A quantitative comparison of T i and T i 0 surfaces was made using a combination of Auger and soft X-ray appearance potential spectroscopy (725). The initial oxidation processes for Fe (100) were studied using photoelectric work function measurements and AES (726). Slow secondary electron emission may be more sensitive than Auger spectroscopy for studying chemisorption; the fine structure in the slow energy emission peak of polycrystalline magnesium was observed when oxygen was adsorbed prior to detection of oxygen by Auger (727). SURFACE S T U D I E S Adsorption. Oxygen. Auger spectroscopy has been applied to the adsorption of oxygen in a variety of systems. Adsorption isobars for oxygen on W a t low pressure. and high temperature have been measured (728, 729). Cesiumoxygen co-adsorption on W (100) was studied a t room temperature (730). High temperature studies on the Pt-0 system showed that coverage was proportional to Auger peak height (731). Oxygen adsorption on Re ribbon was studied by AES over the temperature range of 300-2200 K (732). Electron beam induced effects on gas adsorption have been investigated. The beam affects the Auger signal of adsorbed CO species causing dissociation of the adsorbed molecules and promoting diffusion of oxygen into the bulk (733). The oxygen concentration as measured by Auger spectroscopy is larger in the area probed by the beam during oxygen and CO adsorption than on other areas of the surface (734). Carbon Monoxide. Room temperature adsorption of CO on Mo was used to compare x-ray and electron impact induced spectra as surface techniques. Small electron impact beam effects were noted (735). The carbon Auger peak shapes of CO and C2H6 chemisorbed on W were studied to distinguish between different chemisorbed states of the gases (736). Electron beam effects on CO-W, WC and C2H4-W indicated that all systems were affected by beam currents lower than those used in Auger spectroscopy (737). Miscellaneous. Adsorption isotherms for N2 on W were determined using AES. These conformed to the Temkin equation (738). High resolution nitrogen KLL lines were used to study the chemisorption of NH3 on Mo (739). The surface concentration of Xe adsorbed on Ni was monitored using Auger spectroscopy. The Xe coverage depends on current density and electron energy of the incident beam (740).An isotherm was obtained for the adsorption of HCO on polycrystalline A1 (741), Catalysts. Poisoning of Cu catalysts was examined by AES to determine the mechanism of the poisoning process. Significantly higher lead concentrations were found on the surface of the poisoned catalyst than an active catalyst (742).The exact surface composition of a Cu-MgO catalyst was determined. The copper content of the surface was higher than that of the bulk (743). A spent Pd-Al203 hydrogenation catalyst was examined, and it was found that S and C1 were not significantly different from the fresh cata-
lyst. I t was revealed, however, that Fe covered most of the catalyst surface, masking the active P d atoms (744).Observation of a Mo working catalyst during the reaction between surface sulfur and 0 2 revealed that reaction takes place through direct interaction between 0 2 and surface sulfur (745). Surface us. Bulk Concentrations. Frequently surface and bulk concentrations differ; AES is an excellent technique for these measurements. Diffusion of S and P impurity atoms to a W surface have been monitored (746).I t has been shown that atomically clean T i single crystals became contaminated by the diffusion of bulk impurities, especially S, to the surface (747). A considerable amount of nitrogen has been detected on the surface of Nb3Ge films (748). The diffusion of Co out of gold has been measured (749). Segregation of Cu on the surface of an annealed 50150 Cu-Ni alloy has shown substantial deviation from bulk composition (750).A discrepancy between bulk and surface compositions has been shown for Cu-Ni alloys, the presence of adsorbates can alter the surface composition (751). For a Pb-In system, the surface layers were richer in P b than the bulk. Selective removal of lead a t low temperatures by ion bombardment was noted (752). For Os films electrodeposited on Pt, when the film was heated, Pt diffused through the film and segregated to the Os surface (753). The diffusion of Sn through Au films indicated that Sn first diffused by a bulk process to the outer surface of the gold and then rapidly diffused over the gold surface (754). Grain Boundary Effects. The analysis of grain boundary impurities and fluoride additives in MgO-Al203 systems has been studied (755).The presence of Mg, Ca, and 0 was detected in the intergranular fracture surface of SiN-MgO (756). Grain boundary diffusion in bi-metallic films of A1 and Cu has been studied (757). Reactions a t Surfaces. Auger spectroscopy has revealed that during a surface oxidation of Si, the surface remains metallic (758). Cathode surfaces of Ba-0-W interacting with reactive gases during activation and poisoning has been studied. Poisoning by reactive gases causes changes in the Ba:O ratio (759).The electron stimulated oxidation of GaAs shows a compact oxide layer depleted of As relative to the bulk (760).Large differences have been observed between sputtered and amorphous films of Ge on oxidation. Sputtered amorphous films have a thinner oxide layer (761). Auger spectra of Al-Ga-As indicated excess 0 and A1 a t all interfaces (762). The influence of pretreatment has been studied for the binary system Ag-Cu. Sputtering causes an enrichment of Cu on the surface because of the higher sputtering coefficient of silver (763). An analysis of surface films on AgSSn indicated that the film was primarily an oxide and the Ag:Sn ratio was lower than in the bulk. Differential oxidation of Sn was evident as was the presence of S impurity on the surface (764). Miscellaneous. The surface composition of a Be-Cu alloy was analyzed to optimize secondary electron yield. A wide range of oxygen pressures was found to produce the same surface condition (765).Tarnish of a finish on Ni-Cu alloys was shown to be related to carbon concentration (766). Organic surface contaminants on A1 surfaces have also been studied by AES (767). Auger analysis of films formed on metals by sliding contact with halogenated polymers indicated that chlorine was susceptible to electroninduced desorption. For PVC, a chemisorbed monolayer film of adsorbed C1 was detected (768). The application of Auger spectroscopy to the characterization of glass fiber surfaces has been discussed (769).
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Instrumentation and Techniques. Instrumentation. A small retarding field analyzer for AES has been described (770).A spectrometer consisting of two concentric spheres and a special retarding lens having high resolving power and high luminosity has been reported (771).An improved Auger spectrometer using concentric hemispheres accessed by retarding electron lenses gave high collection efficiency a t medium resolving power (772). Construction of a spectrometer has been described which is particularly applicable to the study of surfaces; it uses 180' electrostatic sector
matched with a lens system (773). A cylindrical mirror spectrometer for the analysis of surfaces allows both oscilloscopic and X-Y recorder display (774).Optimization of a cylindrical mirror analyzer has been reported yielding optimum resolution and/or sensitivity over a wide energy range (775). Techniques. Use of a gated beam technique minimizes electron beam exposure to the sample (776). A technique has been described for recovering the energy distribution and area under a differentiated Auger peak. Auger peak shapes of known spectra obtained were in good agreement with those published (777).Digital recording of Auger profiling data show four advantages: no limit to the number of elements profiled, unexpected elements in a profile are not missed, chemical effects on Auger spectra can be observed, and comparison of spectra is greatly facilitated (778). Increased sensitivity in the detection of small amounts of impurities was demonstrated using a difference technique. This involves electronic subtraction of signals from two samples (779). A simple technique for the measurement of Auger peak heights and areas directly a t the phase-lock amplifier has been developed (780). Factors Affecting Analyses. A general formalism for treatment of a homogeneous surface and layered structure has been presented and its application to quantitative Auger analysis discussed (781). Calibration. An internal calibration method for the surface composition of binary alloys is based on the assumption that in situ fracture of a homogeneous alloy provides a representative measure of composition (782). Calibration of Auger yields for different materials was achieved by direct measurement of the condensed mass by x-ray fluorescence analysis (783). By use of co-adsorption it is possible to calibrate a spectrometer for both adsorbates (784). A sensitivity factor for AES can be estimated without standards, by relating this factor to the differentiated Auger spectrometer signals, sputtering yields, back scattering correction factors, and transition probabilities. A first-order approximation of this approach has been tested (785). Detection limits for B and P in Si were established along with calibration curves for these elements (786). Dynamic Background Subtraction. Analog integration methods have been applied to dynamic background subtraction followed by data integration. Measured vs. predicted Auger current ratios have been established (787, 788). Dynamic background subtraction predicted the quadratic dependence of Auger signal strength with modulation amplitude for second-derivative current detection in a four-grid retarding potential analyzer; experimentation verified the prediction (789). Spectrum subtraction techniques have been used to detect S and P on a Mo surface ( 790). Other Important Factors. The contribution of backscattered electrons to Auger yields has been examined for Be films on a Cu substrate (791).Effects of back-scattering on secondary electrons have been evaluated as a function of escape depth (792). The back-scattering factor for Si ionization cross-sections has been calculated as a function of energy for primary electrons and compared with measurements (793). The influence of surface roughness on quantitative Auger measurements was investigated using gold films on smooth glass and rough ceramic substrates. A model for the effect of surface roughness on Auger intensities was developed and compared with experiment (794). The effect of incidence angle of primary electrons on Auger emission yield has been studied (795). Peak heights and energy shifts associated with small changes in a specimen position have been investigated (796).The angular dependence of Auger electron emission from surfaces has been studied and interpreted on the basis of simple scattering theory (797).Computations have been made for the dependence of back-scattering on the direction of the incident beam and values for the relevant absorption and back-scattering parameters for electrons are given (798). Peak shape in Auger spectroscoDy, caused by changes in chemical environment, can be eliminated by use of appropriate integration techniques (799). Comparison with Other Techniques. Three techniques have been described for the quantitative determination of ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48,
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Sn adsorbed on the surface of Fe: intensity ratio maxima, deposition of Sn or SnOn on the iron surface and cleavage of a single crystal of an FeSn alloy (800). A comparison of ionization cross sections in x-ray and electron excited Auger spectra indicated that x-ray excitation is more efficient for ca. 1 keV electrons but electron impact is more efficient for low energy electrons (801). In depth information of impurity concentrations in a surface layer can be obtained by variation of the primary electron beam energy (802).
Applications. Thin Films.Auger spectroscopy has been useful in a variety of thin film studies. Diffusion studies of Cr in Cr-Pt films have been reported (803). The primary contaminants of Au-nichrome metallizations were C and 0 (804). PdzSi films have been measured to obtain information about the Pd-Si interface (805). Similarly analyses of AI-Si interfacial reactions in A1-Si contacts have been measured (806). Oxide films on a thermally grown Pb-In alloy indicated the surface layer consists only of In203if In < 10%. Lower percentages of In produce a mixture of PbO and In203 (807). The iron oxides on stainless steel have been investigated and a variety of species observed (808). An Auger analysis of Si thin films deposited on carbon a t high temperatures gave information about the distribution of Si and C in the C-Si interface (809). The monolayer growth of Ti evaporated onto polycrystalline W substrates was monitored using AES (810). Other Applications. A variety of interesting and diverse applications of Auger spectroscopy have been reported. GaAs and AlAs surfaces have been studied (811). The metallic state of silicon in Si-noble metal alloys has been ascertained (812). Auger spectroscopy has also been useful in monitoring the clean-up related contamination of silicon surfaces (813). Phase separation in silicon oxides has been studied (814). The metal-enamel interactions of brassenamel and stainless steel-enamel systems have been investigated (815). The O/Si ratio in films deposited on glass has been measured (816). Underside, top, and air fracture surfaces of unweathered plate glass have been analyzed and compared with bulk analyses. On the underside, for example, Sn and Fe were both present but on the top, only Sn (817).
Lead monolayer lubrication in steel machining has been studied (818). Iron strips treated with lead and sodium azalate solutions showed the presence of lead on the surface but not sodium (819). Applications of AES to failure analysis has been discussed (820). Impurities influencing the vacuum breakdown between electrodes has been studied (821). Auger spectroscopy was used to study the surface composition of a number of grains from sub-millimeter lunar fines (822). Lubricant films on steel samples subjected to pressure lubrication were analyzed (823).
MISCELLANEOUS Scanning Auger Microprobe. One of the most interesting developments during the period of the present review has been the scanning Auger microprobe. This gives a new dimension in Auger spectroscopy, that of spatial resolution on the surface. An article describing the value of a scanning Auger microprobe has appeared (824). Most papers in this area have been descriptions of instrumentation (825). The feasibility of using an Auger spectrometer with LITERATURE CITED (1) Hercules, D. M., Anal. Chem., 1972, 44, 106R. (2) Hercules, D. M., Carver, J. C., Anal. Chem., 1974.46. 133R (3)' Caudano. R., Verbist. J., Ed., "Electron Spectroscopy-Progress in Research and Applications", 1974, Elsevier, Amsterdam. (4) IUPAC Committee on Molecular Struction and Spectroscopy, IUPAC, lnf. Bull., Append. Provis. Nomencl., Symb., Units, Stand., 1974, 37. (5) Ertl, G., Kuppers. J., "Low Energy Electrons and Surface Chemistry", 1974, Verlag Chemie. Weinheim. (6) Jorgensen, C. Klixbull, Berthou. Herve, "Photoelectron Spectra Induced by X-rays of over 600 Non-Metallic Compounds Containing 77 Ele~~
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a scanning positioner as a microprobe has been explored (826). Some problems of Auger imaging using a scanning Auger microprobe have been discussed (827). Few applications have been published. In one, themorphology of traces formed by a diamond stylus on a sample of stainless steel was studied. Variations in the surface density of elements present a t the groved surface could be detected (828). Ion Excited Auger Spectra. Excitation of Auger spectra by sources other than x-rays or electrons has been the subject of investigations in physics for a number of years. Application of these techniques to surface analysis now appears to be starting. Surface Analyses. Surface analysis using proton beams and measuring characteristic x-rays, back scattered protons, and Auger electrons has been discussed comparatively (829). Heavy ion induced Auger spectroscopy for surface analysis has been reviewed (830). One advantage of heavy ion Auger spectroscopy as an analytical technique is the excitation of specific impurity elements in a solid matrix by selection of the projectile particle mass and energy. This technique is highly sensitive because the ionization crosssection can be much larger with heavy ion bombardment than with electron excitation (831). Ion-excited Auger spectra from aluminum were compared with electron excited spectra and differences in the line shape noticed (832). Proton induced electron emissions with Nb surfaces were obtained and the results interpreted by electron emission theories (833). Types of Spectra. Different types of spectra have been reported. Auger electron emission spectra from C+ ions excited by collision with thin carbon foils and Ne have been observed (834). Continuous and discrete electron energy distributions were observed in the collisions between a carbon foil and Ne projectiles (835). Angular energy distribution of ion induced electron emission has been investigated (836). Doppler shifts have been noted in Auger electrons from foil excited heavy ion beams (837). Comparison of Excitations. Neon KLL Auger lines excited by He+ were four times the intensity of lines excited by H + (838). Argon L shell ionizations by H2+ and He+, H+, and D+ were compared and satellite structures measured (839). H2+ and He+ impact spectra on nitrogen and methane were obtained and the intensities of the Auger satellite lines determined (840). The Auger spectra of Mg, Al, and Si excited by electrons and Ar+ were obtained and the ionization mechanisms discussed (841). A direct comparison has been made of the magnesium LMN Auger spectra produced by low energy electron and argon ion excitation (842).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT I wish to acknowledge the assistance of J. C. Carver, N. L. Craig, R. Gray, K. Ng, L. Phillips, D. Wyatt, M. Carvalho, R. Zingg, and J. Chestnut in compiling the references of this article. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the University of Georgia Computing Center in profiling the literature search and for the support of this program. I appreciate the kind cooperation of Becky McRorie in doing the arduous task of typing the manuscript and references. This work was supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation under grant MPS75-05961.
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